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ANALYTIC HISTORY, 

FOR SCHOOLS; 



FOUNDED UPON 



THE ESQUISSES HISTORIQUES 

OF 

M. D. LEVI, (Alvarez,) 

ADAPTED TO THE STATE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE 

UNITED STATES, 

AND BROUGHT DOWN TO THE YEAR 1848. 




PUBUSHED BY D. FANSHAW. 575 BROADWAY; 
Printing Office, comer of Ann and Nas«aa-«u. 



1848. 






THE LIBRARY 
OF CONGRESS 

WASHINGTON 



Entered according to Act of Congrcaa. in the year cf our Lord one Uion^iunI 
eight linndrbtl fttid forty-fiUht, by Josix II. TIuNXKa nnd Daniki. pANaiiAW, in 
Jlie Clork'8 Office of th? UisUict Court of ibe United States, for !bc Scuibcra 
District of New-York. 



O-v 



K/ 



^^^ 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 



NrW'York, July 21, 1847. 
Mr. Hum'er, 

Dear S!R,r-The following is a copy of the report 
upon " An Analytical History " by M. D. Levi, read before tha 
Ward School Teachers' Association, and unanimously adopted 
by thorn at a meeting held in the City Hail, July 7, 1847. 
Respectfully, 

Wm. Kennedy, Recording Secretary, 



REPORT. 

Mil. Presided T, 

The Book Committee of this Association have cxatr.in- 
ed with some care a French Work on History, by M. D. Levi, 
(Alvarez,) and a manuscript translation of the same by Rev. 
Ji)hn n. Hunter. This work is universal in its character, a:;d 
professes to be Slcctchcs of History, as, indeed, every work of 
this kind must be which is contained within the limits of 300 
pages. 

This volume embraces a large amount of matter, very plea- 
santly and clearly arranged. It appears to be free from sectarian 
prejudices, and aims to give the true historic account of every 
fact narrated. It is, in the opinion of your committee, a work 
axlmirably adapted for use in our schools, generally being short, 
comprehensive and interesting. 

Those parts of the Translation, by Rev. Jolm II. Hunter, 
v.hich we have examined and compared, appear to be faithfully 
executed, and to give clearly and forcibly the sense of the origi- 
nal. If the work be published, as we hope it will be, we doubt 
not it will be extensively used in our schools, and be found in- 
teresting to the general reader, and that a valuable object will 
be accomplished by the Translator, in thus bringing it before 
the public. Your Committee offer the following resolution. 

Ucsolved. — That the Historical Sketches by M. D. Levi, 
(Alvarez,) and translated by Rev. John H. Hunter, is, in the 
judgment of this Association, a work of much excellence, and 



4 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

well fitted for use in the recitation room ; and that wc encourage 
its introduction into the Schools \vith which we are connected. 

John Walsh, Chairman. 
J. Blackburn. 
Edward McIlPxOY. 
William Ken n edit. 



From the Principal of the Seminary for Young Ladies in 
Bridgeport, Connecticut. 

Having been permitted to use the Manuscript of the " Ana- 
lytical History " in my school last winter, I have been enabled to 
submit it to the only sure test by which a school book can be 
judged, that of actual experiment ; and I am gratified to have 
this opportunity of giving my testimony to its excellence. 

It comprises, in itself, a complete system of instruction ; which 
if fuiihfully carried out by the teacher, cannot fail to give any 
pupil, of moderate abilities, such a knowledge of the principal 
facts of History as will enable him to deduce those moral lessons 
for which the study is principally valuable. Even one whose 
historical knowledge is already considerable, will, by this plan, 
find it so systematized as to become doubly available. By the 
frequent repetition of the outline so skilfully drawn up in the 
commencement, it is indelibly fixed in the memory ; and the 
minor details are gradually associated with this sketch, so as 
finally to make it a finished whole. I rejoice that Mr. Hunter 
has made the work of M. D. Levi accessible to such of my 
pupils as are unacquainted with the French language, and hope 
that its general introduction into the schools of this country may 
prove a universal and lasting benefit to our youth. 

Lydia R. Ward. 
June 16, 1847. 



PREFACE. 



Elementary instrtlction in history is almost a nullity in 
our country ; this is a sad tnith to announce. Notwith- 
standing the zeal of certain writers and teachers who have 
exerted themselves to improve it, we seek in vain a me- 
thodical work on this branch of education, where all man- 
kind still find the rules of conduct. 

Certain summaries of ancient and modem history are 
current in the schools ; but they are arranged upon no set- 
tled plan : the pupils learn them by heart, recite them 
with mechanical volubility, and give themselves but little 
concern about introducing order into the ideas, or con- 
necting the facts which they contain. They confound 
centuries, events, and men ; make Alexander the Great 
to have lived before Romulus, and Hannibal in the time 
of Pharamond. In this chaos, in this labyrinth of names, 
dates and facts, the memory, overwhelmed beneath the 
undigested mass, is fatigued, and succumbs ; from this 
confusion springs disgust, from disgust, weariness, and 
from weariness, ignorance. 

It is not an useless remark, that upon the talent of the 
instructor depends the success of a laborious and well- 
disposed student. When a man teaches, it is necessary 
that he should know twkc : first for himself, and next for 
his pupil. The art of instruction, in history especially, is 
more diflTicult than is commonly supposed : it is not enough 
to say; lcar?i, rrpcat ; it is necessary that adroit and 



6 PREFACE. 

pressing (jucstiuns cause the desired answer to be dit*- 
covered ; it is necessary to find out ingenious means for 
fixing a particular event in the memory, and to possess, in 
sufficient extent, tlie two sciences which serve as the foun- 
dation of liistory : Geography and Chronology. Here are 
great difficulties, doubtless ; they are not to be surmount- 
ed but by the force of vigilance and'toil ; it is only thus, 
however, that a man may bear, without usurpation, the 
lofty title of teacher ; or conscientiously fulfil the noble and 
delicate function of instructing his kind. We should al- 
ways reflect, that upon our talents, upon the clearness and 
method of our lessons, depends in great measure the fu- 
ture of a child. What a powerful motive for meditating 
on our duties ! 

Here, you will say, are grave reflections for so small a 
work. This work will be of little importance, doubtless, 
to the eyes of the undiscerning ; but it will acquire some 
value in the view of the friend of children, and of the 
sensible instructor of youth ; for it is towards the improve- 
ment of elementary instruction that the philanthropist 
directs his beneficient regards. In his solicitude he will 
seek for everything which may open to instruction a new 
and certain road : it is only when its foundations are solid 
that the monument defies the injuries of time. 

Remarks upon the Method of Teaching llutory, 
hy M. D. Levi. 

The method of M. D. Levi, according to which the fol- 
lowing work is arranged, addresses itself to all ages and 
understandings ; it takes the child six years old, and con- 
ducts him, by a series of successive developements, o&- 
ward to the close of his historic studies. 



J REFACE. 7 

This nuilbud is presented in two principal works, tlic 
Esquisses HU'tori(jucs and tlie Efemens d'liistoire Generalc 
As llie present work is mainly derived from the former, 
or tlie Historical Sketches, a brief analysis will t>e here 
proper of those parts of it which we have adopted. 

The few first pages of the work are devoted to iiifor- 
matian wliich the pupil should acquire before comniciic- 
irig the study of history ; the origin and formaliou of na- 
tions and states, that of governments, the diflercnt sorts 
cf g.,)vernmenr, the oi)jcct of history, its divisions ac- 
cording to the- different points of view under which we 
regard it, the sciences which serve for its foundation, the 
eras of nations, the different ways of dividing them, &:c. 

Next come certain preliminary ideas concerning the 
])riniitive times of the world ; from the creation to the 
deluge ; from the deluge to the rise of the earliest nti- 
lions. It will be seen that all these ideas are expressed 
in the present work v.'ith much clearness, and are perfect- 
ly accessible to the understanding of children ; they are 
presented in a dozen pa:>es, and form a sort of introduc 
tion to !he work, which itself comprehends nevcn divisions. 

The first division is occupied with a Scale of all the 
nations known to history. This scale presents, in their 
clironological order, the ancient nations, those of the 
middle age, afid those of modern history, with only the 
indication of the cenrnry of their foundation and the 
name of their founder. 

This first division, v.hich the authot regards as the 
trunk of history, should be studied with the greatest care, 
and repeated at the commencement of every lesson, 
whatever may be the pupils degree of advancement: it 
is a true historic al^hahct. For this purpose a black- 



8 PREFACE. 

board may be used on which are traced initial letters de- 
signed to recall the names of the nations and of their 
founders. 

The second division gives the geograpliical situation of 
all these nations ; it should consequently be studied by 
the pupil with maps before him. 

The third division has for its title, The principal vicis- 
situdes of the nations. It presents us again with the same 
nations in the same chronological order; for, let it be well 
remarked, the principal merit of this system is that it al- 
ways connects new facts with those already known. Here 
we find the great masses of the history of each people 
marked by the different revolutions which it has under- 
gone. 

The fourth division, which the author calls a brief re- 
view, is a rapid summary of^the facts which the pupils 
have studied in the three first divisions. It is important 
then tliat it be known in the most perfect manner. 

The more the pupil has advanced, the more will his 
understanding have been developed by the comparisons 
which he has made. Here he sets about securing the 
knowledge he has acquired ; this brief review of general 
history presents the grand facts which he has seen in the 
whole of each particular history. 

The brief review is followed by a chronology of the 
principal events of history. Here the pupil may begin 
to avail himself of the second and larger work of the 
author,* the Ele7ne7its of General History, in order to 

* This work is now ready for the press, and will soon be published. 
Meanwhile it is proper to state that the larger work, though an admirable 
addition to the present, for those who are disposed to pursue the study of 
History at greater length, is not necessary to the com^Vielencss of the 



PREFACE. 9 

Study the developement of the facts which are only indi- 
cated in the chronology. 

This chronological table is of great importance even to 
those who do not advance to the study of the larger work, 
since it is the term of comparison to which the historic 
facts of each century will be referred; it is expedient 
therefore to detain the pupil here until he is in sure pos- 
session of it. 

Connected with the chronological table is a list of great 
men from the creation of the world to our own day, ar- 
ranged according to centuries ; one celebrated personage 
gives his name to a century ; and in a second column, 
placed opposite, are inscribed the names of other remark- 
able personages of the same century. 

For example : the great Cyrus gives his name to the 
VI^^- century, before J. C; Solon, Pisistratus, Tarquin 
the Proud, Confucius, Croesus and Cambyses, are cele- 
brated men of the same century. Thus the histories of 
Greece, Rome, China, and Persia, are recalled simulta- 
neously to the memory of the pupil. 

This secular list furnishes one of the most useful exer- 
cises ; you may judge of this by the questions which the 
author has placed in the sequel. For instance : 

In what century did Ha?inihal lice ? Hoiv many years 
or centuries clajtsed between IIa?mihal and Louis X/F'^- ? 
In what history do you find Hannibal, and on what occa- 
sion is he spoken of 1 Apply to each personage questions 

smaller, which is perfect in itself, and, if thoroughly Btudied, will impart 
a clearer and more minute acquaintance with the branch of study of which 
it treats than any other manual now in existence. This is saying much, 
but not more than tlic worlt deserve?, as every one who becomes familiar 
with its contents will admit. 

1* 



10 prtEFACE. 

of the same nature, and you will comprehend all the fruit 
that may he clerlved from such an exercise. 

For ihis hiography of great men, the pupil will begin 
to multiply his researches ; he may and ought to avail 
Llniself of all the works which are at his disposal. A 
small Historical Dictionary will here be of use to him. 

Let us stop at this point, and attempt to estimate what 
amount of acquisition will have been made by the pupils 
wlio have reached it. 

They will know : l^-- the chronological order, the names 
of the founilcrs, and the geographical positions of the 
nations who have occupied the scone of the world from 
the origin of the earliest people until our own days ; 
2^^'^- the principal vicissitudes of those nations; that is to 
say, the grand divisions of the history of each of them ; 
2-^- the chronology and the deveh»pement of the princi- 
pal events of history ; 4^^'- finally, all the celebrated men 
who have appeared in each century. 

In iho fifth divU-io'n, the nations viewed hitherto as a 
v»'liole, and only indicated by their birth, their moment of 
splendor and liieir fall, are presented with details sufficient 
to make them more perfectly known. 

Tiiis developed portion of the work should be read at- 
teii lively at the recitation ; the pupil, prepared by the 
ft)rcgoing exercises, will ex])erience no ditTiculty in mas- 
tering its contents. 

The sixth division of the work is a clnmolo^ical Usi 
of alt the sovereigns of Europe, dmvn to our own time, 
arranged by dynasiics and families. By means of a sy- 
noptical table, Vv-hich the pupil should make, he can give 
the names of all the sovereigns who leigned in Europe 
at a given epoch. For exara|)]e : Who were the kings 



r RE FACE. 11 

that reigtied in Europe whe;! Cliribtoplier Colanibus dis- 
covered America in 1492 ? The student of this work will 
answer without hesitancy : — In France, Charles VLfl"'^^'-; 
in Kngland, Henry VII^^-; in Spain, Ferdinand V'-'-^, &c-. 

This last ]'dbi)r is one of llie most instructive an:i inte- 
resting; the papil should exercise himself gradually m 
pointing out the reigning sovereigns at a given epoch. H« 
may study at first France, next England ; and before pas'-- 
ing to another people, he will place these two States in 
connection, by naming the cotemporary sovereigns of 
tliese countries. After having exorcised him sufTiciontly 
in tliis way, any date whatever is set before hirn, and he 
name.s,^ according to his progress, the cotemporary mon- 
archs of France, "England, Russia, &c. 

The seventh and last division consists of a Summarij 
View, in v/hich the great epochs of History, with the lead- 
ing events by which they were characterised, are pointed 
out, and the pupil is enabled, at the close of his studio.*", 
to take a comprehensive survey of the progress of his 
race. 

Thus, by the aid o? successive exercises, all the great 
events of history will have entered into the memory of 
the pupils in an order so well graduated that each new 
acquisition will be for them no more than the developo- 
ment of facts already known. All these exercises lend 
each other a natural assistance ; thus any dale whatever 
recalls at an instant the name of the nation whoije origiH 
it marks, that of the founder of that nation, its geographi- 
cal position, the principal revolutions which it has un- 
dergone, and the other nations with which its history is 
' connected. Nothing is isolated in the memory of the pu- 
pil ; every thing ip connected, all bound together. Herd» 



13 PREFACE. 

in our opinion, is the true manner of studying history. 
The method of historic study thus exhibited proceeds by 
the understanding in order to reach the memory, and it is 
especially in this particular that it is preferable to the old 
one, which followed a course exactly the reverse; accord- 
ingly, compare two children from ten to twelve years of 
age, instructed, the one by the ancient method, and the 
other by that which is here adopted; What do you find 1 
Little or nothing on the one side, and on the other infor- 
mation, varied and extensive for the age of the child; a 
spirit of analysis, of comparison, and of moral criticism, 
in which the rational human being already makes his ap- 
pearance. 

The introduction of such a method into historical in- 
struction in our own country v/ill prove, we are persuad- 
ed, of the highest advantage. This conviction has induc- 
ed the compiler of the present work to attempt a task in 
which, by omitting certain details of the plan, as develop- 
ed by its learned and useful inventor, not adapted to the 
state of things in our own land, he might present the in- 
structors and pupils in history, among his countrymen, 
v/ith a work which may well claim to be the only one in 
the English language calculated to impart to those who 
study it, a systematic acquaintance with the important 
branch of which it treats. J. H. H. 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 



From tUe Creation of the WorUI to tlie ©eliego. 

In the beginning God created all the beings of the 
universe; he cndow^ed man and woman vt^ith the greatest 
perfection of soul and body. He placed them in a de- 
lightful abode, which we call the terrestrial paradise (in 
Asia). But Adam and Eve, by their disobedience, drew 
upon themselves the wrath of the Eternal, who condemned 
them to the ills of life and to death itself. 

After their fall they had two sons, called Cain and Abel. 
Cain conceived jealousy against his brother, and slew him ; 
this was the first murder. A third son, named Seth, com- 
forted Adam; he distinguished himself by his justice and 
piety : his sons, for a time, followed his example. 

Meanwhile, in multiplying, men corrupted themselves; 
they despised the warnings of God ; a terrible catastrophe 
anniliilated them, and the M'hole race of Adam was re- 
duced to the family of Noah the just. The earth was 
inundated : this is what is called the universal deluge, 
which took place seventeen centuries after the creation of 



What did God do in the beginning? 

How did he endow mnn and woman ? 

Where did he place ihem ? 

How did they conduct themselves there ? 

What was the consequence ? 

What is said of Cain and Abel ? 

What was the character of Seth ? 

Did his sons imitate his example ? 

Did mankind become corrupt as they multiplied ? 

How did tliey treat the warnings of God ? 

What calamity befel them ? 

To what family was the human race reduced ? 



14 rilELI?JINAKY 

llic world, or tbirty-four centuries before the birth of 
Jesus Christ (1655 of the workl, 3303 before J. C.) 

From tliii I>«^lHge to the i-is« of the pFimiCiv^' 

After remaining many months upon the earth the waters 
EiihsiJed, and the vessel which bore the remains of the 
fird fanii}]j stood still on mount Ararat. The chijdrea of 
Noah mukiplied rapidly. The land where the ark had 
stopped not being sufficient for their subsistance, they form- 
ed the project of separating themselves by great families. 

Before consummating that separation, they wished to 
leave a monument of their power in order to preserve 
themselves from a second deluge, by building a prodi- 
gious tower, since called the tower of Babel. God, irri- 
tated at their pride, put a stop to its construction by the 
miracle of the confusion of tongues. 

Separation only became the more necessary; three 
colonies were formed : — 

1"^- That of the descendants of Ham directed its course 
towards the south-west ; some of them stopped in tlie 
country since called Palestine, to which the proscribed 
family of Canaan gave the name of its chief; the other-?, 
under the conduct of Mcsraim, or Menes, established 
themselves in Africa, and founded the kingdom of Egypt ; 

When did the deluge take place ? 

How did the catastrophe terminate? 

Where was the ark arrested ? 

Did the family of Noah multiply rapidly aftt-r the delugo? 

What project did they form ? 

Before consurninatina; their separation what mcnutncnt of 
their power did they wish to leave behind thom ? 

How did the Almighty frustrate their dcsii^n ? 

Was the necessity for their separation increased or dirn-n- 
ished by lliis event ? 

How many roloiiles were formed ? 

Whither did the descendants of Ham direct tlieir course ? 



OBSERVATIONS, 15 

giid. Xhut of the desceiidauts of SLern retained the 
plain of Sennaar, and extended themselves towards the 
east and the west ; Arphaxad, the eldest of the sons of 
Shem, founded the Idngdom of Chaldea, and later the pri- 
vileged kingdom of God, under Abraham, the son of Te- 
rah ; Elam, the second son, founded the kingdom of the 
Elamites, or Persia; Asshur, the third son, laid the fouu- 
dati(jns of the kingdom of the Assyrians ; — 

3'"^- That of the descendants of Japheth traversed a por- 
tion of western and northern Asia, and passed over into 
K u rope. 

All these colonies extended themselves from generation 
to generation in the countries in which they were at first 
established, and the whole earth became the dwelling- 
place of mankind. «» 

ForKiaSioii of i!Vatiosi*i. 

Jilan is born to live in society : the multiplicity of his 
wants, the long feebleness of his infancy, the tardy de- 
velopement of his intelligence, all render him social. 

In primitive times each family lived united; the fatlicr 
was its natural head ; his councils were followed, his laws 
obeyed. But families multiplied, they became too nume- 
rous to live in the same place, they separated ; there were 
many chiefs, and consoqiicntly many councils, many ]aw^\ 

By little and little the necessity for communicating their 



Where did the descendant:> of Shem continue to reside? 

In what part of the world did the descendants of Japlietli 
settle 7 — Did these colonies extend themselves? 

What are some of the proofs that man is born to live in 
society? 

Wiiat was the condition of each family in primitive linies ? 

What took place when families multiplied ? 

Ndte. — The dlsper.-'lyn of tbe liatiuns shoulu be fulloweii out upon a 
large map. 



16 PRELIMINARY 

ideas to each other, and of mutually assisting each other, 
caused the reunion of a large number of those families 
which had been scattered : this is probably the origin of 
the formation of nations and states. 

From the time of this reunion, the necessity of having 
only a single vsrill inspired the idea of placing in the liands 
of several men, or of a single man, the fate, the fortune, 
the existence of that concourse of individuals: tliis is the 
origin of government, or of the principles by which a 
people is governed. 

From these principles of governm.ent are derived the 
laws, which are the expression of the relations that arc 
necessarily established in society. 

Laws apply to God in his relations with the universe, 
as Creator and Preserver ; to the material icorld, whose 
movements have invariable laws, without which they can- 
not subsist ; to beasts, which have only natural laws, be- 
cause they are united to the material world by none other 
than physical wants ; to man who, as a physical being, 
is, in common with other bodies, governed by invariable 
laws, and who, as an intelligent being, is governed by 
those of religion and morality, and by political law. 

Laws in general may be divided into two kinds : natu- 
ral and positive. 

The fonner comprehend : 1^'- the law of peace, which 
appears to take its source in the first sentiment of man, 
that of his weakness, and consequently that of fear ; 2"'^- 



What is the origin of the formation of nations anil states ? 

What is the origin of government ? 

Whence are laws derived ? — What is law ? 

To what beings do laws apply ? 

How may laws in general be divided ? 

Into what classes may natural laws be divided ? 

Whence does the law of peace take its source ? 



OBSERVATIONS. 17 

ilie laic of lire&crvation, the origin of which is the second 
sentiment of man, that of his wants ; 3^^ the law of ap- 
proximation, which manifests itself by the pleasure which 
an animal experiences at the sight of another of its spe- 
cies ; 4^^- the law of sociality, which takes its birth in the 
desire which every one experiences to communicate the 
knowledge he has acquired. 

The positive laws comprise : 1^^- the laiv of nations, 
which is the connection of different nations with each 
other; the laws which form it are derived from two 
principles, viz : that the different nations should do each 
other, in peace, the most good, and in war, the least evil 
possible, without hurting their own interests, and that war 
have for its object preservation ; 2^"^- political law, \y\\\ch 
embraces the relations of governors with the govern- 
ed ; 3'"*^- civil law, which comprehends the relations that 
all the citizens of the same state have among themselves. 
The two kinds of laws last mentioned vary according to 
the nations and governments for which they were made. 

We may refer to positive laws, the laws of religion, 
which have for their object to impress a sanction in some 
sort divine upon other positive laws, as well as upon 
the laws of nature. If admitted at all, it is necessary 
that they be suited to the character of each particular 
people, and conformed to the institutions as well as to the 
wants of each climate ; they comprise the common law, 

What is the origin of tlie law of preservation ? 
How does the law of approximation manifest itself? 
Whence does the law of sociality take its birlh ? 
What do the positive laws comprise ? 
What is the right of nations ? 
Whence are the laws from which it is derived? 
What does political law embrace? 
What relations does the civil law comprehend ? 
How do the two last mentioned kinds of laws vary ? 
To which of the two great classes may the laws of religion 
be referred ? — What is their object? 
To what should they be adapted ? 
What subdivisions do they comprise? 



is PRE LI Mi NARY 

winch i:> occupied with the relations of ihc various orders 
of'ecclcbiastical ministers, with regard to each other, aud 
the theological or dogrnaiical which, regulate public wor- 
fship, and determine the nature and limits of the creed. 
In our own country, the civil legislature is not com])C- 
tent to the enactment of such laws. 

€»o ver li isioai ts. 

G<n'ernmcnt is the just application of laws made and 
promulgated in the interest of society for its preservation 
and prosperity. 

In the origin of societies, the form of government was 
either patriarchal or theocratic : patriarchal when the 
heads o^^ families were masters or sovereigns ; theocratic, 
when the ministers of religion, the priests, had the sove- 
reign power, and reigned at once over temporal and spi- 
ritual aflairs. At the present day governments may be 
divided into two kinds, the rcpuhlic and the monarchy. 

Tiic nature of this government is that the people in a 
body, or only a part of the people, has the eovereign 
power. 

It is divided into two varieties ; 

The Jcmocracy, or republic properly so called, when 
the whole people has the sovereign power; 

With what is the canon law occupied ? 

What do theological or do^^matic laws regulate? 

Are guc!) laws vviihin the scope of civil legislation in ojir 
ov.'ti country ? 

What is i];overnnicnt ? 

What forms orgovernment prevailed in liie origin of .socJcty ? 

Vv'hnt was the patriarchal fortn ? — What the theocratic?" 

Into huw many kinds may governments, at the present dav, 
be divided ? 

What is the nature of rcpublicnn government? 

Into how many varities is it divided? 

Wi>al is democracv ? 



OBSE^RVATIDXS. 19 

The aristocracy, when the power is in the liauds of" a 
part of the people, the grandees, the lords. Aristocracy 
is divided into several kinds. If the aristocracy pos- 
sesses a part of the government, and the whole of the 
temtory, (as formerly in Poland, England and France,) 
it m feudalism, or the hierarchy of powers among the vas- 
sals or seigneurs. 

If it possesses a pa/t of the territory and the whole of the 
goccrnmcnt,\ixS at Carthage, Venice, and in certain Swiss 
countries,) this is oligarchy. 

If it possesses oiily ^ part oiWie goccr?ime/tt and of the 
territory, (as in England and Sweden,) this is the peerage 
or the senate. 

If, without political p«>wer, it possesses cllher pririlcilg- 
ed lauds or part of the judiciary power, it is the riohility. 

If it is only titular, as it does not form a body, and is 
in the State neither an order nor a power, it has no col- 
lective name ; it is then beyond the reach of political 
language and classification. 

Monarchy. 

Monarchy is the government of a single man ; it is elec- 
tive if the monarch be chosen indifferently in many fami- 
lies ; it is hereditary if he be taken of right in the same 
family ; it is absohUe, if the king be independent of the 
laws ; it is autocratic if that independence is unlimited. 

The monarchy is limited, if a charier or a constitution 
binds the king to the people, and the people to the king. 

In this latter form, the people is represented by legis- 
lative assemblies or chambers. These chambers are di- 

Wliat is ari.sfocracy ? 

Can you describe the sevf^ral kinds of arlsiocracy ? 
What is monarchy ? — Wljea is it called elociive ? here- 
Itary ? absolute ? autocratic ? limited ? 

ited rnonarc/iy how are the peofde rf presented ? 
the legislr.tive assemblies dVi'ided ? 



ditary 

In a limi 
How are 



20 PRELIMINARY 

videcl into two parts : the upper chamhcr (or the peers, as 
in France) composed of members hereditary or nominated 
for life. 

The chamber o£ commo-ns (or of deputies, as in France) 
composed of men chosen by a certain number of their 
fellow-countrymen, called electors. 

Anarchy is confusion, disorder in a state, where no 
person has authority enough to command and to make 
the laws respected. 

l>Istiiictioii of Ns&tloMs. 

Before proceeding to a narrative of the events wlilch'' 
have taken place we should distinguish the nations frora 
each other in various respects, according : !='• to their 
color ; 2'^<^- the country which they inhabit ; 3''-^- their ori- 
gin ; 4*- their geographical situation ; o"^* their intelli- 
gence ; C-^ their occupations; 7'^^- their religion. 

Color and pli^sical cliaracter. 

The human race is divided into two distinct parts, 
and these are afterwards divided into various races, prin- 
cipal stocks or families. 

The first part is distinguished in a moral point of 
view by a progressive intelligence, or by a state of civil- 
ization more or less advanced. It uses written laws, and 
may be divided, physically, into three races; the white ; 
it includes Europeans in general, the western Asiatics, and 
the nations of Barbary : the tawny or olive colored : it in- 
cludes the eastern Asiatics, in general, and the polar na- 



Of what is the upper chamber composed ? 

Who compose the chamber of commons ? 

Wiiat is anarchy ? 

How are the nations distinguished from each other ? 

Into how many distinct species is the human race divided ? 

How is the first species distinguished in a moral point of view ? 

How in a physical ? 



OBSERVATIONS. 81 

tions : and the coj?pcr- color ed : the indigenous Americans. 
The second part is distinguished, iTiOrally, by a limit- 
ed understanding, and a civilization ever imperfect : it is 
divided into three races ; the deep-brown, the Malays 
and the inhabitants of Notasia and those of Polynesia : 
the black ; the Ethiopians and the Caffres : and the black- 
ish ; the Hottentots and the inhabitants of Australia. We 
remark, among the negroes, the Albinos, or Africans of a 
dingy white. 

Coiintrf. 

The nations are Asiatic, European, Afiican, American, 
Malay; they are subdivided into Persians, French, &c. 
according to the States of Asia, Europe, &:c. which they 
inhabit. 

Origin. 

The nations are autoctltones, indigenes, or aborigines, 
th.at is to say, primitive inhabitants ; foreigners, colonists, 
that is to say, they have passed from one country into 
another, whether in the design of sojourning there, or in 
the debign of inhabiting it and cultivating the land ; Cre- 
oles, that is to say, born in the East or West Indies, of a 
f-ither or mother originally from another country. 

Metis, that is persons whose father is European and 
mother Indian, or whose father is Indian and mother 
European. We speak of a ?nctisse. 

Mulatto, whose father is while and mother a negress, 
or whose father is a negro and mother white. We speak 
of a mulatress. 



How is the srrrmd species morally distinguished ? 

Into how many races is it divided ? 

Among the negroes what variety is remarkable ? 

How are the nations divided and subdivided as to country? 

How are they divided as to origin ? 

Whatare aborigines? Colonists? Creoles? Metis? Mulaltoest 



8« , niELIMINAKY 

Ck5ograp1iirai sUnaiion. 

The insular nations inhabit iblands ; mountaineers, the 
mouritains ; rip7iarians are those who dwell along a river; 
nomadcs, those who change their residence to seek for 
now pasture ; and maritime, tliose who are situated upon 
the seaboard. 

Intel ligeare. 

The nations are .savages, if they are not acquainted 
with the manner of fixing their thoughts by signs ; f/ar- 
haro7is or semi-civilized, if they have made only slow pro- 
greSvS in civilization, if their lav^'S are irregular, and cruel ; 
civilized, if they have a fixed system of legislation, polity 
and war : they are then acquainted with the sciences, the 
fine arts, and the belles-lettres. But this classification 
may present great modifications, fur it is frequently dif- 
ficult to determine in a precise manner the point v^-ln'rh 
separates barbarism from civilization. 

The cretins form a class by themselves : they arc deaf, 
dumb, and imbecile beings ; they have goitres or swollen 
glands which hang from their throats. They are found at 
the foot of mountains, the Alps, the Andes, Arc. 

Ocoiipatioas. 

The nations are hunters, fishers, shepherds, cultivators, 
traders, navigators, warriors, &c. 

Rcligio?!. 

All nations admit the existence of a Being who created 



? 
respect present great 



How are the nations divided as to geographical situation ? 

How are they divided as to intelligence" 

Why may their classification inlhis i 
modifications ? 

What are the cretins? — Whore are they found ? 

How are the nations dividrd as to occupation ? 
•How as to religion ? 



0BSEIIVATI0N3, 23 

ihs universo, but all do not worship hira in tho same nisii- 
ner, which gives rise to many religions. The exterior 
acts of wliich each is composed is called worship. It 
niny be divided into two cla^i;es : Polytheism, or the Vv'or- 
ship of many gods, and Manotkcism, or the worship of 
one god. 

PoJj/thcism, or t/ie worshij) of many gods ; we n<>tii:o 
here fctichisvr, or the adoration of animate or inanitnalc 
earthly things : this is the religion of savages ; 

Sahcism, or the worship of the stars : this is the religion 
of certain isolated tribes ; 

Brahmism, or the transformation of the Divinity under 
different forms of men or auimals : this is the rehgion of 
the Hindoos ; 

Dualisyn, or the religion of the two principals : Orom- 
asdes, or the beneficent being, and Ahrimanes, or the ma- 
lignant being. Zoroaster created this system among tho 
Persian3. 

Monothcitm admits only one God. It rejects the vvor- 
ship of physical objects, and has given to mankind an 
idea of the divinity, grander and more sublime than all 
the others. It is composed of Judaisyn, Christiamty and 
Moho^nctism. 

Jfulaisvi is the principal trunk of the other two ; it ia 
divided into three sects : 

l**-' That of the Rahhinists, who attribute authority to 
tlio Talmud or the oral laws of Moses ; 

2^^- That of the Karaifcs, or rabbins attached to the 



What is worship ? 

Into how many classes may it he divided ? 

What is Polytheism? — What are it varieties? 

Wliat is Fetichism ? Sahoism ? Brahmism ? Dualism ? 

What <loes Monotheism admit? — What does it reject ? 

WhHi has if given to mankind ? 

Of wh:it [lartles is it composed ? 

What is Judaism ? — Into how many sects i.s it divided I 

What arc the Rabbiaists ? — What iho Karaites? 



24 PRELIMINARY 

latter, who acknowledge only the Penlateuch or the five 
books of Moses ; 

S'"^- That of the Sa?na?-iiaus, which exists at Naploue, 
(Sichem,) in Asia. 

CJiristianity, or the religion of Jesus Christ. It is ex- 
tended through the whole of Europe, and in many coun- 
tries of Asia, Africa and America ; it is composed of three 
pruicipal branches : 

ist. Xhe Catholic, or Roman religion, or that of the La- 
tin Occidental Church, of which the pope is the head. It is 
professed in Austria, Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, 
Prussia, Poland, and in the eastern and western colonics 
of those States. 

2nd. Protestantism, which does not recognise the au- 
thority of the pope ; it is divided 

Into LutJierariism, professed in Denmark, Sweden, Nor- 
way, Transylvania, and a part of Poland] also in some 
parts of the United States, 

Calvinism, spread through England, Holland, Switzer- 
land and Geneva ; also in a large part of North America. 

The Anglican Church, in Great Britain and in many 
parts of the United States. 

Protestantism includes also different minor sects : the 
quakers, who originated in England ; the socinians, in 
Transylvania, &c. 

S''^- The Greek Church, ov mclchites, in Greece, in Russia, 
in Asia, and Africa, under the patriarchs of Constanti- 
nople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. This sect com- 

What the Samaritans ? — What is Christianity ? 

Through what countries is it extended? 

Of how many principal branches is it composed ? 

What is Roman Catholicism ? 

In what countries is it professed? 

What is Protestantism? — How is it divided ? 

Where is Lutheranism professed ? — Calvinism ? 

The Anglican Church ? 

What are some of the minor sects of Protestantism? 

Where is the Greek church found ? 



OBSERVATIONS. 25 

prises also, the Muscovites or Russ^ians, the Georgians and 
Mingrelian^. 

Mahometisvi, or Islamis?n. It is divided into two sects : 

l*t- The sect of 0}?iar, followed by the Turks, a part of 
the Tartaj-, and by the Arabs, the Egijptmns, and many- 
nations of northern Africa. Those who belong to thi» 
sect are called Smmites, because they admit the commen- 
tary called Sunna ; they recognise the califfs as the legiti- 
mate successors of Omar. 

2nd. Xhe sect of Ali, or the schiites, that is separatists. 
It is adopted by the Persians, the Moguls, the nations of 
India who have received mahometism, as the inhabitants 
of the Maldive Islands, &c. 

The Koran is the sacred book of the mahometans. Its 
distinguishing dogma is fatalism ; it says, in substance : 
God had willed it, accordingly what has taken place wo^ 
inevitable. 

The divisions of History. 

The origin of nations, their increase and decay, their 
good or evil actions, their successes and reverses, in fine, 
their revolutions, are preserved in a Mcmarial called His- 
tory. History is then the picture of the events which have 
taken place upon the globe. 

These events are religious, if they belong to religion ; 

Civil or political, if they belong to the state or to go- 
vernment ; 



Into how many sects is Mahometism divided ? 
By what nations is the sect of Omar followed ? 
Why are the Sunnites so called ? 

Whom do they recognise as the legitimate successor of Omar ? 
What does schiite mean ? 
By whom is the sect of Ali adopted ? 
What is the sacred book of the Mahometans? 
What is its distinguishing dogma? — What is History? 
Of how many kinds may the events recorded in history be? 
2 



26 PItELIMINAKY 

Literary, if tbey recall the orig-ia and progress of tha 
arts and sciences ; 

Natural, if they have reference to terrestrial or celestial 
phenomena ; 

Hence the denominations of holy, sacred, rdigiatis, or 
ecclesiastical history ; oicicil Sknd jw/itical history ; of hte- 
rary hiatory, and oi natural history. 

With reference to its extent and ohjects, hibtory is di- 
vided mio j^articular, diWiS. general or nniversal. 

Particular history treats only of one people, one pro- 
vince, one city or one illustrious personage. 

Universal history retraces the events of ail nations. 

General history embraces at a single glance the revolu- 
tions of a great state or of many nations, bound together 
among themselves by leading interests. 

With reference to time, history is distinguished into 
ancient history, the history of the -miildle-age, and vtodern 
h i story. 

The history of nations is also divided into many great 
epochs, or by ceninries, that is to say a space of an iiun- 
dred years. 

Tliesc centuries are counted be ^.iminibhing until the 
birth of Jesus Christ, and by increasing after that event, 
which serves accordingly for a starting-point ; wc say,. 
ihorefoi'e : This nation was founded, this event took 
place so many centuries before or after Jesus Christ. 

Among the sciences which serve as a foundation to his- 
\^i}X\, geography ^x\d, chrortology \\iAi}i the first rank; and 



How !?} history divided ^^ itli reference Jo its extent anJ oh- 
•eci ? — Of vihat tloes pariicnlar history treat ? 

What does general history enibrace ? 

How is history distinguisJied wltli reference to time ? 

How are the centuries of hisitory counted ? 

What is the most important sciences wluch serve as a pjun- 
dafion to history ? 

\n tlie (]ivi«»lf)ns of chronology wliat kini of knowledge is in- 
dispeasible? 



OBSERVATIONS. 27 

in the divisions of the latter, the knov/ledge of different 
eras is indispensible. 

All nations have not adopted the same divisions of time. 

The Hebrews reckon by the sabbatic year, a space of 
seven years. 

The Greeks, by the olympiad, a space of four years. 

The Romans, by lustrums, a space of five years. 

Eras are fixed points from v/hich each people begin to 
count their years : there is, then, the era of the Greeks, 
the Roma7is, the Syrians, the Christians, the Arabs. 

The relation of facts which happened at the same time 
icj called synchronism. 

To make an anachronism, is to commit faults against 
chronology. 

In order that the events may be classed methodically 
in our memories, and that we may assign to each nation 
the century of its foundation, we have prepared a list 
which presents the succession of nations, from the estab- 
lishment of tlie first states until our own days (18-17). Thia 
list bears the name of scale or ladder, by allusion to the 
instrument which, by means of steps, enables us to reach 
any point whatever. 

We shall divide the nations into three parts : the 
avcient, the intermediary or of the 77iiddlc-agc, and modern 
Tint tans. 



Have all nations adopted the same divisions of time? 

How did the Hebrews reckon time? — The Greeks ? — The 
Romans ? — What are eras ? 

What are the leading eras of wjiich mention is made in his- 
tory ? — What 13 synchronism ? 

What is anachronism ? 



riRST PART. I 

SCALE OF NATIONS. 

Ancient History. 

The ancient nations whose history is little hnot/m, arc: 

2at. ii^ Asia, the Hindoos, the Chinese, the Jajyancse, the 
Scythians; in Africa, the Ethiopians ; in Europe, the 
Celts and Basq?/cs. 

The nations 2chose history is hiown, are: 

2^d. In the XXV^h- century (2467) before J. C. the 
Egyptians, whose founder was Mc??es ; in Africa. 

S'-d- In the XXllI'-'i- century (2297) the Hchracs, first 
^dXTmrch, Abraham ; in Asia. 

4:h. In the XX^^^ century (1993) the Assyrians; found- 
er, Belus, in Asia. 

[On the ruins of the Assyrian empire rose, in the 
Vllltii- century the Medes (759) founder, Arhaces; the 
Babylonians (757), founder, Belesis ; the Ninivites (759), 
founder, Phnl ; in Asia.] 

..5'^'- In the XVIP^- century (1G40) the Phcnicians, 
founder, Agenor ; in Asia. 

6^^^- In the XYV^- century (1582) the Greeks, founder, 
Cecrops ; in Europe. 

[The principal nations of Greece were : the Athenians 
(1582), founder, Cecrops ; the Thebans (1549), founder, 
Cadmus ; the Spartans (1516), founder, Lelex ; the Co- 
rinthians (132S),founder,Sisyphus; the Mycenians (1348), 
ibunder, Perseus.] 



SCALE OF NATIONS. 29 

"7^- In the XVI^^- century (1506) the Trojans, founders, 
Teucer and Dardauus^ in Asia. 

8*- In the IX*- century (860) the Carthaginians (a 
Phenician colony) foundress, Didoj in Africa. 

9*- In the VIII*- century (753) the Romatis, founder, 
Romulus ; in Europe. 

10*- In the VI*- century (536) the Persia?is, founder, 
Cyrus; in Asia. 

11*- In the IV*- century (360, 336) the Macedonians ^ 
HoMudeTB, Philip Bjid Alexander ; in Europe. 

[At the death of Alexander (324) the Macedonian em- 
pire was divided into four kingdoms, among the generals 
of the conqueror ; Macedonia fell to Cassander, Thrace 
to Lysimachus, Syria to Seleucus, Egypt to Ptolemy, 
eon of Lagus.] 

12*- In the IIF**- century (250) the PartJiians, founder, 
Arsaces j in Asia. 

[Birth of Jesus Christ, in the year of the world 4963, 
L*- century.] 

13*- Iir*^- century (228) after J. C. the ?iew Persians, 
founder, Artaxerxes ; in Asia. 

14^^- In the IV*- century (394) the Eastern Empire, 
first emperor, Arcadius ; in Europe and Asia. 

[In 476 took place the fall of the Roman Empire of the 
West, caused by the invasion of the barbarous nations of 
Germany.] 

Principal Barbarous Nations, 

Which invaded the Ro?Jian Empire in the F^*- century 
after Jesus Christ. 

15*- In the V*- century (405) the Burgundians ; chief, 
Gondicaire ; in Europe. 

16*- (In 409) the Suevi ; chief, Hermanric ; Europe. 

17*- (In 409) the Vandals ; chief, Genseric ; Europe. 



30 FIRST TART. 

18'^- (In 409) the Alani ; chief, Gonderic ; Asia. 

19^- (In 418) the Franks; chief, Pharamond ; Europe. 

20^^- (In 427) the Angles and Saxons ; chiefs, Hengist 
and Ho«'sa; in Europe. ♦ 

2i8t. ^Xn 455) the Huns ; chief, Attila ; in Asia. 

22"^- (In 47G) the Heruli ; chief, Odoacer ; Europe. 

23'^'^- Goths (in 493) the Ostrogoths ; chief, Theodoric : 
(in 595) the Visigoths ; chiefs, Alaric and Herman ric ; in 
Europe. 

24th. (Jn 553^ ii^Q Lombards ; chief, Alboin ; in Europe. 

Secondary Barbarous Nations. 

25*^- In the V'^^- century the Avars, who came from Asia. 

26'h- The Gepidi, from the Baltic. 

27'^- The Bulgarians, from Scytliia. 

28^^' The Venedes, from the Baltic. 

29'^- The Slaves, from the Baltic. 

30'^- In the IX^^. century the Hungarians, from the 
Volga. 

31«*- In the X^^. century the Allemani, from the Rhine. 

32°'i- The Danes, from Jutland. 

33f^-The Normans, /rom Jutland. 

34'^- In the XV^i^- century the Turks, who came from 
Asia. 

[Ancient History, commencing at the creation of the 
World, ends at the fall of the Roman Empire of the West, 
in 476, caused by the invasion of barbarous nations : it 
had lasted more than 54 centuries (4963 to 476 5439.)] 

IVatioiif^ of the Middle Age. 

The nations of the muhllc-agc arc : 

35tb- In the Y^^- century (481) the French; founder, 
Clovis; in Europe. 

36*- In the VI ^h- century (568) the Lomhards; founder 
Alboin; in lEuropo, 



SCALE OF NATIONS. 31 

37^^^ In the Vl^^ century (.572) the SjyanUh j founder, 
Lcovi^lhl ; in Europe. 

38^^' In theVIlih. century (G22) the .4/Yi^.?; lawgiver, 
Malwinct ; in Asia. 

39'h. In the VIII'^ century (714) the :Sloors ; principal 
chief, AhJherama'ti; in Africa. 

40th- In ^he IX^h- century (813) the ^wcdifs t principal 
founder, B'toniej in Euro2">e. 

W^- In the IXih. century (S27) the EngUsli : fir.si king, 
Ei^hcrt ; in Europe. 

42"*i- In the IX"^ century (812) the Pohs ; founder, 
Fidst; in Europe. 

43^*^ In the IX^^- century (SG2) the Russians; founder, 
Riulck; in Europe, 

44''i- In the X'^- century ((? 12) the Germans; first king, 
Conrad f"*'; in Europe. 

45''^- In the X'^»- cent-^ry (^30) the Danes; principal 
founder, TIarald VU'^*-; in Europe. 

46*^- In the X^^- century (1000) the Ilungarianf?; found- 
er, ibtc'phcn I^ ; in Europe. 

47 h- In the XIK"- century (1130) the Nea^poUUim and 
Suilidfis; firrft king, Roger 11'"^ ; in Europe. 

48'h- In the Xlh^' century (1139) the Portuguese; first 
king, AIj)7ionso Henrique z; in Europe. 

49'b- In the XI l'^^- century (1198) the Bohemians; 
founder, Oltocar ht ; m Europe, 

50'h- In the XIIT^- century (1300) the Asiatic Turks; 
founder, Osman P^ ; in Europe. 

bi^^- In the XIV'i^- century (1308) the Swiss; (republic) 
liberators, MtlcJttal, Staf/fuc/wr, Walter Furst and Wil- 
liam Tell; in Europe. 

52'^'^- In the XV^'^- century (14^3) the Buropcan Turks; 
founder, Mahomet 11-^ ; in Europe, 

[The History of the mlddk-age commences at llie V^*'- 
century, en the fall of the Reman Empire of the West, 



32 FIRST PART. 

and terminates in the middle of the XV^- at the establish- 
ment of the Turks in Europe; it lasted therefore nearly 
ten centuries (from 476 to 1453=977).] 



Modern Nations* 

The nations of modern history are : 

53'*i- In the XV^^- century (1453) the European Turks, 
Mahomet IP^^- 

54^^- In the XV^^- century (1492) the Americans, dis- 
covered by Christopher Columbus. 

[The principal nations are : the Mexicans, in the XVP^* 
century (1518) discovered by Cortez; the Peruvians, in 
the XVI"^- century (1525) by Pizarro ; the Brazilians, 
in the XVP^- century (1500) by Alvarez Cahral; the 
Ani^lo- Americans ( United States) in the XVIII"^ cen- 
tury (1782) made independent of England under Wash- 
ington. \ 

55t^- In the XVF^^- century (1581) the Hollanders and 
Belgiatts ; stadt-holdcr William P^- of Orange. 

56*- In the XVIIl^^- century (1701) the Prussians, first 
king, Frederic of Hohenzollern. 

57th- In the XVIIIth- century (1718) the Sardinians, 
first king, Victor Amedeus. 

58th- In the XIX^^. century (1805) the Bavarians, first 
king, Maxi?mlia7i Joseph. 

59th. i,^ |-}n3 xiX'h. century (1805) the Wurtemhirgers, 
first king, Frederic. 

GO^h. fj^ tiie XlXth. century (1805) the Saxons, first 
king, Frederic Augustus. 

Cl^t- In the XlX^h. century (1830) the Neio Greeks, 
chief, Capo d' Istria. 

62"d- In the XIX^^. century (1830) the Hollanders, 
William I< of Orange. 



SCALE OF NATIONS. 33 

eS'^- In the XlX-'h. century (1830) the Belgmfis, Leo- 
j[)old of Saxe Cobourg. 

64tb. In the XIX^^^- century (1833) the Modern Greeks, 
first king, Otho of Bavaria. 

[Modern History, commencing at the middle of the XV^- 
century, (1453) already reckons (in 1847) 394 years, that 
is to say, nearly four centuries.] 



EXERCISES ON THE FIRST PART. 
TO WRITE : 

The historical table of nations, in four columns; l"** 
epoch of the foundation ; 2°*^- dates presumed or certain ; 
S*"**- names of the nations ; 4^^- names of the founders. 

MODEL OF QUESTIONS ON THIS PART. 

1. What are the nations concerning which we have no 
certain knowledge \ 

2. How many centuries separate the foundation of 
Rome from that of Carthage ? 

3. What nations preceded the Romans ? The Greeks 1 

4. Who is the founder of such a people % 

5. What are the nations of ancient history, those of the 
history of the middle age, and those of modern history ] 

6. What are the geographical places spoken of in this 
part] 

7. How is general. history divided ] 

8. How^ long did ancient history last 1 That of the mid- 
dle age 1 Modem history ] 

9. At what great event does ancient history end 1 The 

history of the middle age ? 

2^* 



34 FIRST PART. 

10. What do 1582, 860, 753, 536, &c. recall 1 

[All the questions which are put to the pupil should be 
written down at once by him on a sheet devoted to that 
purpose, in order that he may afterward address them to 
himself.] 

OBSERVATION. 

This first part should be arranged on a black-board in 
a synoptical table, but only with the initial letters ; the 
pupil should name with rapidity all the nations included 
in it. Whatever may be the degree of his instruction, 
he should always commence his lessons in history by this 
important exercise, just as the most able musician com- 
mences his pieces by a gamut. 



sxscosarD tatlt. 



SITUATION OF THE NATIONS. 



€f€Ograpliicai Part. 

T/ie JYadofis wAosc origin and kistori/ are oUniost un- 
kfioivn, arc : 

In Asia, the Indians at the south, the Chiuese at the 
west, the Japanese north-east of the Chinese ; the Scij- 
ihiatis at the north. In Africa, the Ktkiopians south of 
Egypt. They occupied what at the present day we call 
Nubia and Abyssinia. In Europe, the Basques, near the 
Pyrenees ; the Cdts, who, leaving the northern countries 
of Europe and Asia, spread themselves through the whole 
of Europe. 

The Katious ivJiosc Itistory is htilcr Juiown, arc : 

The Egijptians in Africa, at the north-east. The prin- 
cipar cities were: Memphis, Thehcs with the hundred 
gates, Tanis and Alexandria. The Assi/riatis properly so 
called, east of the Tigris, in Asia : Nineva and Arhcla. 
They formed : the Mcdcs in Asia, south of the Caspian 
sea, and east of the Assyrians : Ecbatana, Rages, The 
Babijloniatis in Asia, south of the Assyrians and south- 
west of the Medes, between the Tigris and the Euphrates : 
Babylon. The Niuevitcs in Asia, north of the Babylonians 
and east of the Tigris : Nineveh. The Hebrews, in the 
south-west of Asia, north of Arabia and south of Pheni- 
cia : Jerusalem, Joppa, Gaza, Bethlehem, Jericho. The 
Phcnieiaus in Asia, north of the Hebrews: Beri/tus, Si/- 



^ SECOND PART. 

don, Tyre. The Greeks in Europe, east of the Adriatic 
gulf and the Ionian sea, and west of the Archipelago. 
The principal nations of Greece were : The Athenians 
in Europe, in Greece proper, the province of Attica, 
north-east of Peloponessus : Alliens, Eleusis, Maratho?i. 
The Thebans in Europe, in Greece proper, in Basotia, 
liorth-west of the Athenians : Thehcs, Leuctrce, Aulis. 
The Corinthians y in Europe, in the Peloponessus, to the 
north-east : Corinth. The Spartans in Europe, in the 
Peloponessus, to the south, in Laconia : Sparta. The 
Mycc7iians in Europe, in the Peloponessus, south of the 
Corinthians, a province of Argolis : MycencB, Natijjlia, 
JEpidaurus. The Trojans in Asia Minor, to the north-west, 
province of the Troade : Troy, Lampsacus, Dardanus. 
The Carthagiiiiaris in the north of Africa, opposite Sicily: 
Carthage, Utica, Zuma. The Romans in Europe, at the 
centre of Italy ; at first restricted to the single city of 
Rome, they became in the sequel masters of the whole 
known world : Rome, Alha, Tuscuhcm. The Persians in 
Asia, at the south, cast of the Persian gulf: Suza, Per- 
sepolis. The Macedonians in Europe, at the north-east 
of Greece ; they became masters of all known Asia and of 
Egypt : Phessalonica, Potidcea, Pella. The Syrians in 
Asia. They were situated north of Arabia, Palestine 
and Phenicia, and south-east of Asia Minor : Antioch, 
Laodicea, HeliopoUs and Damascus. The Partliians pro- 
perly so called, in Asia, south-east of the Caspian sea, 
near Media and Hyrcania. Their capital was Hecatom- 
2>ylos, or the city of a hundred gates. 

The empire of the East extended from Illyria (Europe) 
to the Euphrates (Asia), and from the North of Thrace 
(Europe) to Lybia (Africa). 



SITUATION OF THE NATIONS. 37 

The principal barbarous JVations who invaded the Ro- 
m-an Empire, were : 

The Burgundians in Europe, north of Germany, (Al- 
lemagip,) between the Vladrus (Oder) and the Vistula. 
The Suevi in Europe, to the north of Germany, near the 
mouth of the Viadrus (Oder). The Vandals in Europe, 
to the north of Germany, near the shores of Sinus Codranus 
(the Baltic sea), from the Cimbrian Chersonesus (Jut- 
land) to the Oder. The Alani, originally from Asia, in 
the environs of the Caucasus, between Pontus-Euxinus 
(the Black sea) and the Caspian sea. The Franks, a com- 
bination of German" nations who dwelt in the north-west 
of Germany, between the Rhine and the Weser. The An- 
gles and the Saxons, north of Germany, at the entrance 
of the Cimbrian Chersonesus (Jutland). The Huns in 
Asia, north of Scythia (Siberia), on the frontier of north- 
ern China. The Heruli in Germany, between the Elbe 
and the Oder, south of the Suevi and Burgundians. The 
Goths, the Visigoths, and the Ostrogoths in Europe, at 
the north ; south of Scandinavia. The Lombards in Ger- 
many, between the Elbe (Albis) and the Vistula. 

The S€C07idary barbarotis J^ations^ are : 

The Germans. They inhabit the centre of Europe. 
At the present day they are confounded with the Alle- 
rnanni ; under this name are comprised all the nations 
which dwelt towards the sources of the Danube, in Ger- 
many. The ^rar5, a Scythian people, north of Asia. The 
Gcpidoe, on the shores of the Baltic sea, in the southern 
part of Sweden. The Vetiedes, in European Sarmatia 
(Russia), on the shores of the Baltic sea, from the Vistula 
to the gulf of Riga. The Bulgarians in Asia, in the south- 
ern part of Scythia. The Slavonians in European Sar- 
matia, on the shores of the Baltic sea, south of the 
Venedes. The Danes and Normans in Europe, in Jut- 



9t SECOND PART. 

land and upon the coasts of Norway. Tlic ilujigar'tans at 
first upon the banks of tlic Volga, in European Sarmatia ; 
next they established themselves in the part of Pannonia 
wliich, afterwards, took the name of Hungary. The 
Turks. They had resided in the centre of Asiafat the 
foot of mount Imaus ; next they invaded Asia Minor, and 
finally possessed themselves of the part of Europe to 
which they gave the name of Turkey. 

The historic Xations of the middle-age, are : 

The French at tlie west of Europe. They have at the 
north, England, at the south, Spain and the Mediter- 
ranean, at the east the States of Sardinia, Switzerland, 
Germany and Belgium, and at the west, the Atlantic 
Ocean ; Paris, Lyoris, Bordeaux, Marseilhs, liouen. The 
Lombards, in Europe, in the north of Italy : Pavia, Milan. 
The Spanish, in the south-west of Europe. They are 
])Ounded on the north by France, on the south by Africa, 
from which they are separated by the strait of Gibraltar, 
on tlie east by the Mediterranean, and on the west by 
Portugal and the Atlantic ocean : Madrid, Cordova, 
Sei'ille. The Arabians, in the south-west of Asia, between 
the Persian gulf, the Red sea, and Palestine, and in the 
sequel, in all known Asia and the north of Africa : 
Sana, Mecca, Medina. The Moors, in the north of Africa. 
They established themselves in Europe, in the south of 
Spain. The Swedes, in the north of Europe, bolween 
Norway, Denmark and the Baltic sea : Stockholm, Upsal, 
Gottcnburgh. The English, in Europe, in the north- 
west, between the Channel, which separates them from 
France, the North sea, which separates them from the 
Low Countries, Germany, Denmark and Norway, and 
the Atlantic ocean : London, York, Newcastle, Livcrj>col, 
Manchester. The Scotch, in Europe, at the north-west, 
north of the English : Edinburgh^ Perth, Glasgow. The 
Irish, west of the English : Dublin, Cork, Londonderry. 



SITUATION OF THE NATIONS. 39 

The Russians: They occupy the east of Europe, the 
north of Asia, and the north-west of America : Saint Pc- 
tcmhurgh, Moscow, Archangel. The Poles, at the centre of 
Kurope, west of Russia, north of the empire of Austria, 
and west of Prussia : Warsaw Sandomlr, Cracow. The 
Danes, in the north of Europe : They have for bounda- 
ries, on the north Sweden, on the south Germany, on the 
east the J3altic sea, and on the we^t the North sea : Co- 
j)cnhagcn, Altona, Odensee. The Hungarians, in the centre 
of Europe, north of Turkey, east of the Austrian Domin- 
ions : Prcsburg, Hennanstadt. The Germans, the whole 
centre of Europe comprised between the Baltic sea, 
Denmark, the North sea, the Low Countries, Franco, 
Switzerland, Italy, Turkey and Russia : Vienna, Lintz, 
Baden. The Bohemians, at the centre of Germany : 
Prague. The Poruguese, in the south-west of Europe ; 
they have on the north and east Spain, and on the 
west and south the Atlantic ocean : Lisbon, SetuvaJ, 
Coinibra. The Neapolitans and Sicilians, in the south of 
Europe, at the southern extremity of Italy and in the 
island of Sicily : Naples, Capua, Palermo, Syracuse. The 
Swiss, in the centre of Europe ; ihey are shut up be- 
tween Germany, France, the Sardinian States and the 
empire of Austria : Basle, Lucerne, Geneva. 

The Natiotis cf modern history, arc: 

The Turks. They occupy the south-east part of Eu- 
rope, between the Black sea, Russia, the empire of Aus- 
tria, the Adriatic sea, the Mediterranean sea, and the 
Archipelago : in Asia, the south-west part, which has for 
boundaries ; at the north, the Black sea, the Caucasus 
anxl the Caspian sea, on the west, the Archipelago, on 
the south, the Mediterranean and Arabia, on the east, 
Persia. In Africa, they possessed Egypt, &c. : Con- 
stantinople, Salonica, Smyrna, Prusa, Jerusalem, Cairo, 
Alexandria. The Americans, whose principal nations 



40 SECOND PART. 

are : the Mexicans, in the south-west of North Ame- 
rica, west of the gulf of Mexico : Mexico, Oaxaca, San 
Luis. The Peruvians, in South Ameiica, at the west : 
La Plata, La Paz. The Brazilians, in South America, 
at the east : Rio Janeiro, Saint Augustin, Pcrnamhuco. 
The United States, in the centre of North America : 
Washington, PJiiladclphia, New-York. The Hollanders 
and the Belgians in j^urope, north-east of France and 
north-west of Germany : The Hague, Aynsterdam, Rotter- 
dam, Brussels. The Prussians, in Europe, north of Ger- 
many and west of Russia: Berlin, Dantzick, Kcenigshcrg. 
The Bavarians, in Europe, in Germany, west of the Aus- 
trian empire, north-east of Switzerland : Munich, Augs- 
hurg, Ratishon. The Wurtc?nhurgcrs, in Germany, west 
of Bavaria and north of Switzerland : StiUtgard, Ulm. 
The Saxons, in Germany, north of the Austrian empire, 
and north-east of Bavaria : Dresden. The Neu) Greeks, 
south of Turkey, in Europe : Athens, Corinth, Trijwldza. 



OBSERVATIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THE 
SECOND PART. 

This part is wholly geographical. The pupil cannot 
!>o too much familiarized with the situation of the nations ; 
it is an exercise which needs to be frequently repeated. 

MODEL OF QUESTIONS ON THIS PART. 

1. Where is such a people found, and what are the 
principal cities of the country which it inhabited or in- 
habits 1 

2. To what country do or did such and such cities be- 
long % 

3. What nation was or is found in such a situation 1 



THIRD TART. 

PRINCIPAL VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 

Ancient History. 

J^'ations wliose history is almost unknown. 
IN ASIA. 

The Indians or Hindoos are probably the most ancient 
nations of the world, and the first founders of other na- 
tions ; their geograhical position, the historical documents 
which they present, and the sacred language of the Bram- 
ins, their priests, are the three reasons given by the learn- 
ed, which attest their high antiquity ; still their history is 
almost unknown. It has been said that BaccJius, a Greek 
hero of the XIV'^- century before J. C. conquered the 
Indias ; that Se?2iiramis, queen of Assyria, in the XX^^- 
century, subdued a part of them ; that the Persians showed 
themselves there as conquerors ; but what is more certain, 
is the expedition of Alexander the Great into that coun- 
try. This conqueror vanquished r orus, one of its bravest 
kings ; still, he did not push his conquests far. 

The Indians were little known to the Romans of the 



Which are the most ancient nations in the world ? 

What are the proofs which attest their antiquity ? 

Who is said to have conquered them in the XlVti"- century 
before Christ ? 

Who in the XXt^- ?— Who after Semiramis ? 

What is known of the expedition of Alexander into that 
country ? 

Were they much known to the Romans in the middle-age ? 



42 THIRD TART. 

niicldle age ; in motlorn history, we see tlicm successively 
subdued by many nations, until the death of Tippoo Saib, j 
king of Mysore, (XVI 1 1'*^- century,) killed in a combat 
against the English, who are at the present day tlie 
rulers of India. 

The Chinese are little known ; notwithstanding their 
liigh pretensions, they have remained isolated, and have 
little communication with other nations. Three person- 
ages are especially celebrated among them : FuJ^i, whom 
they regard as their founder, (XXX^^^ century before J. 
C.) ; Yao, their lawgiver and the model of their kings;, 
(XVII^^*- century), and Coufuclas, a philosopher of the 
y[th. century before J. C, whose memory they venerate. 
The Chinese were subdued in the XIIl^'*- century before 
J. C. by the Mongolian Tartars, who have seated them- 
selves upon their throne and adopted their laws and 
customs. 

The Japanese; their history appears to be fabulous, and 
is often confounded with that of the Chinese ; their found- 
ers are still less known than those of the latter. 

The Scythians descended, according to the Bible, from 
Magog, son of Japhet. Settled at first near the Araxes, 
they got possession of Asia Minor, in the VIP^- century 
before J. C. and penetrated into Europe and Africa. 
Still they renounced their conquests and returned to their 

By whom were ihey successively subdued ? 

Who was Tippoo Saib ? — Where was he killed ? 

Who govern India at present ? 

Are the Chinese much kuown to history ? 

What three personages are especially celebrated arnoug 
lliem ? 

By whom were llic Chinese subdued in the Xlllth. century 
belbrc J. C. ? — What is said of the Japanese ? 

From v/honi did the Scythians descend ? 

Where were they at first settled ? 

When did they get possession of Asia Minor ? 

Into what other countries did ihey penetrate? 

Did they retain their conquests in those countries? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 43 

own country. In vain did the Persians and Macedonians 
desire to subdue them ; they were indomitable in iheir 
deserts. In the V^^ century after J. C. tliey united with 
the Sarmatians to invade the Roman empire. Tlie Hans 
were Scythians. 

IN AFRICA. 

The 'Ethiopians were, it is said, of Indian origin, they 
passed for having civilized the primitive inhabitants of 
Egypt. A Greek author of the X^^- century before J. C, 
Homer, calls them the wisest of mankind, and the favor- 
ites of the gods ; but their history is unknown. 

IN EUROPE. 

The Celts, starting from the northern regions of Europe 
and Asia, undertook a great number of migrations ; they 
spread themselves througli the whole of Europe, and 
penetrated into Asia Minor. The Druids were their 
priests, the hards their poets. The Gauls were Celts. 

The Basques, one of the most ancient nations of Europe, 
descended probably from the Ihcr'ians of Spain, whose 
origin is lost in the night of time. They speak a primitive 
language, foreign to all those with which we are ac- 
quainted, with the exception of some latin and German 



Did the Persians and Macedonians succeed in subduing 
them ? — What did they do in the Y^'^- century after J. C. ? 

Of what origin were the Ethiopians ? 

What influence are they thoueht to have exerted on the 
primitive inhabitants of Egypt? — Whatdoes Homer call them? 

Is their history much known ? 

From what quarter of the globe did the Celts proceed ? 

Into what countries did the emigrate ? 

What is said of their idiom ? 

Who were their priests and their poets ? 

From whom were tiie Basques descended ? 

What sort of language do they speak ? 



44 THIRD PART. 

words. They have been subdued successively by the 
Romans, the Visigoths and the Arabs of Africa, and are 
found at the present day on both sides of the Pyrenees,- 
in France and Spain. The bravery and address of the 
Basques are celebrated in ancient times. 

Pcojple whose history is known. 

The Egyptians had for their founder Menes, in the 
XXV*- century. They were governed during XIX cen- 
turies by their own kings, until Cambyscs,\ung of Persia, 
subdued them, under their last king Psavi?ne/ilius, (VI^^* 
century) ; Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, united 
their country to his vast empire (IV*- century.) One of 
the generals of that conqueror, Ptolemy Lagus, mounted 
the throne of Egypt, and was the head of the family of 
the Lagidcs, which governed it until the death of queen 
Cleopatra, vanquished at Actium by Octavius (I^*- cen- 
tury before J. C.) The Egyptians were from that time 
subject to the Romans. After the fall of the Roman em- 
pire of the West, (V*- century after J. C), they passed 
under the dominion of the Arabs, VII*- century after J. 
C), and since the XVI*- century they have been a de- 
pendency of the Turkish empire. They are governed by 
a vice-roy called Mohammed Ali, who is now virtually 
independent of the Porte. 

By Avhoni liavc they been successively subdued 1 

Where are they found at present ? 

P^or Avhat were they celebrated in ancient times ? 

How long were the Egyptians governed by their own 
kings ? — Who subdued them in the VI*- century before J. C. ? 

What did Alexander the Great do to them ? 

A-fter his death who mounted the throne of Egypt ? 

How long did the Lagides govern ? 

To whom were the Egyptians subject after the death of 
Cleopatra 1 

Under whose la\vs did they next pass ? 

Of Avhat empire were they a dependency from the XVI*- 
century until Mohammed Ali ? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 45 

The Assyrians had for their founder, Belus, in the 
XX*- century before J. C. and shone under Ninus and 
Semiramis, who extended to a distance the bounds of 
their dominions ; their first empire was destroyed under 
the feeble Sardanapalus, in the YlIP'^ century. Three 
kingdoms rose upon its ruins : that of the Medes, that of 
the Babylonians, and that of the Ninevites, which were 
united to the empire of the Persians by Cyrus in the 
yjth. century. 

The Hebreics had for their first patriarch, Abraham 
(XXIII'^'^- century.) Jacob, his grand-son, quit the land 
of Canaan and went to settle in Egypt ; but the Hebrews 
having there been reduced to servitude, Moses brought 
them out of that state : afterward they fixed them- 
selves in Judea, and were governed at first by judo^es, 
and afterwards by kings. They separated into two 
kingdoms, that of Israel and that of Judah, which 
were successively subdued by the Assyrians and the Ba- 
bylonians. After seventy years of captivity, Cyrus j^er- 
mitted the Hebrews to return to Palestine; they weie 
then governed by the high-priests. They fell into the 
power of the Romans, under the emperor Titus, who 
took and destroyed Jerusalem (I^- century after J. C.) 

The Vhenicians had for their founder Agenor (XVHi^^- 
century.) Navigators and merchants, they founded nu- 



Under whom did the Assyrians begin to flourish ? 

Under whom v/as their first empire destroyed ? 

Wliat three kingdoms rose upon its ruins ? ' 

Where did Jacob, the patriarch of the Hebrews, settle ? 

What befel them there? — By whom were they rescued? 

Where did they afterwards settle ? 

How were they governed ? 

Into what two kirigdoms did they separate ? 

By whom were these kingdoms subdued? 

What befel them after the captivity ? 

By whom were they then governed ? 

Under whose power did they next fall ? 

What wag the cliief employment of the Plienicians? 



46 THIRD PART. 

nierous colonics, such as those of Carthage, Gades, &5C. 
They were successively subdued by the Assyrians, the 
33;tl)ylonians, the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, 
the Arabs, the Mamelukes and the Turks ; these last are 
at the present day the masters of Phcnicia, which made 
a part of Syria. 

The Greeks held, for a lonor time, the first rank amono: 
the nations ; they recognized for their founder Cecrops, 
(XVP*^- century.) Four memorable ages or epochs have 
marked their history. In the first age many cities were 
founded, and many fabulous events are comprised ; it was 
the infancy of Greece. In the second age the Peloponessus 
was invaded by the Heraclidte, or dusccndents of Her- 
cules ; sage laws were given by Lycurgus to Spaita, by 
Draco and Solon to Athens ; this was the youth of Greece. 
In the third age the Greeks shone in the arts, sciences 
and arms : this was the flourishing period, or the man- 
lioc>d of Greece. //,; the fourth age, Greece was succes- 
sively subdued by tlie Macedonians and the Romans, 
\^ho reduced it to a Roman province, (IP'^ century be- 
fore J. C). 

The priiicij)al nations of Greece v/ere : the Athenians, 
the Thebans, the Spartans, the Corinthians and the My- 
cenians. 

The Athenians, of whom Cecrops was the founder, 
wei'e successively governed by kings and archons. Sub- 
dued by the Lacedttmonians, thirty tyrants reigned over 

Did tliey found any colonies ? 

By v.hoin were they successively subdued ? 

\Vho are at present masters of Pheuicia ? 

H(t\v many memorable e[iochs mark the history of the 
Greeks? 

Wliat is said of their firs^t epoch ? Their second ? Third ? 
Fourth ? 

What were the principal nations of Greece? 

By whom were the AtJienians successively governed ? 

Who reigned over them after they were subdued by (he 
Laced j^mouian* ? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 47 

them. They recovered their liberty, which they preserved 
until the time'when they were subjugated by the Romans, 
in the II'^'^- century before J. C. 

The Thcbans, who acknowledged Cadmus for their 
founder, were powerful under Epaminondas and Pelopl- 
das, (IV'^^- century ;) but having revolted against Alex- 
under the Great, that prince took and rased Thebes, 
their capital : afterwards, they became weaker by degree.-*, 
together with the whole of Greece, and fell under the do- 
minion of the Romans. 

The Spartans had for their U)under Lelex, in the 
XVr^'- century; they were, at first, governed by a suc- 
cession of kings, who vrere di^ipossessed by the Heraclidaj 
or sons of Hercules : afterward, two kings reigned con- 
jointly at Sparta : the laws of Lycurgus caused the pros- 
perity of this people. They vanquished the Athenians ; 
bat they were subdued, with the whole of Greece, be- 
neath the power of the Romans (U'"^- ctjntury before 
J. C.) 

The Corinth fans, whose founder was Sisyphus, (XIV^^'* 
century,) were successively governed by kings, and by 
magistrates, called j>r^jhines ; their commerce and wealth 
were the occasions of jealousy to the Romans, who ra.-^ed 
Corinth, their capital. 

Dill tliey recover tlu-ir liherty? — How long did they retain it? 
When were they subjuiialed by [he Romans ? 
Under whon^ were the Thcbans powcTfuI ? 
Ajainst whom iliil they revolt in the IV'^- ccatury before C ? 
What did Alexander do to lliem ? 
AVhat betel them afterwards ? 
Bv whom were the Spartans at first governed? 
Who dispossessed their first race of kings ? 
Ho^' many kings reigned there at once from the time of the 
IIeraclid^?-^What caused the prosperity of the Spartans? 
What neighboring people did they vanqui5.h ? 
By whom were they finally subdued ? 
By whom were the Corinthians successively governed ? 
What rendered them an object of jeahniny lo the Roniana? 
What did the latter do to t!ieir raplial ? 



48 THIRD TART. 

The Myccnians had for their founder Perseus, in the 
XIV'^ century. The dcscondents of Ilercuies, or the 
Heraclidae, put an end to their kingdom, which they con- 
founded in that of Argos; Mycenae, their capital, was 
utterly destroyed in the V"^^- century before J. C. by the 
Argives, who were rendered jealous by the fact that this 
city had sent eighty warriors to Thermopylfe, to fight the 
Persians. 

The Trojans had for their founders, Dardanus and Teu- 
cer (XVl'h- century) ; they were governed by a series of 
kings, until Priam, under whom the siege and capture of 
Troy by the Greeks (XIII'^- century before J. C.) took 
place. 

The Carthaginians y of Phenician origin, had for their 
founder Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre (IX*^* 
century before J. C.) ; they were celebrated by the ex- 
tent of their commerce. Worthy rivals of the Romans, 
whom Hannibal, one of their greatest generals, vanquished 
several times : they succumbed to that nation in the third 
Punic war, and Carthage, their city, was reduced to ashes 
(II^'i century). 

The Ramans, the most celebrated peojile of antiquity, 
had for their founder Romulus, in the VIIl^'^- century; 
they were governed, during two centuries and a half, by 
seven kings ; Romulus, Numa, Pompilius, Tullus Hos- 
tilius, Ancus ^Martius, Tarquin the Elder, Servius Tul- 
lius, and Tarquin the Proud ; during five centuries, their 

Who put an end to the kingdom of the Mycenians ? 
Who destroyed their capital ? 
What provoked the Argives to this act ? 
By whom were the Trojans governed until Priam ? 
Under whom did the siege of Troy take place? 
By what were the Carthaginians celebrated ? 
Did they rival the Romans ? 
By whom were they finally conquered ? 
By whom were the Romans governed during two centuries 
and a half ? 

What form of government succeeded ? 



VICISSITUDES OP THE NATIONS. 49 

government took the form of a republic, at the head of 
which were the consuls ; ihis is the brilliant epoch o\ tlie 
the Romans. They then subdued the naiions of Italy, 
destroyed Carthage, reduced under their domiiii(nj liie 
Macedonians, the Greeks, the iilgyptians, and all known 
nations, except the Germans and ilie Parthiuns.. 

The emjnre succeeded to the republic ; it lasted live 
centuries : Octavius was the first emperor. The Romans 
were then masters of the world ; but the civil vvais, 
luxury, the vices and weakness of the greater part of 
the successors of Augustus, hurried the empire towards 
decay ; in 47G, that of the West was invaded by the 
barbarians, and new states rose upon its ruins ; this was 
the origin of modern nations. 

The Persians had for their founder Cyrus, one of the 
greatest conquerors of his age. Cambyses, his son, added 
Egypt to their vast empire ; their wars against tlie Greeks, 
under Darius, son of Hystaspe3,and under Xerxes, his son, 
had no durable success. Under Darius Codomanus the 
empire of the Persians fell into the power of Alexander 
the Great, king of Macedonia (IV^*^- century befjre J. C.) 

The Wlaccdonians had for their verltabl efoundcrs, Philip 
and Alexander the Great, his son. Under the latter, Ma- 
cedonia became the mistress of Greece ; he traversed 



Did they flourish under the republic ? 

What nations did they then subdue ? 

What form of government succeeded the republic ? 

How long did it continue ? 

What v/as the condition of the Romans under the empire ? 

What were the causes which hurried the empire towards 
decay ? — What befel the Western Roman empire ? 

What was the origin of modern naiions ? 

By whom was Egypt added to the Persian dominion? 

Was the success of the Persian wars against the Greeks 
lasting ? 

What happened to the Persians under Darius Codomanus? 

Under whom did Macedonia become mistress of Greece? 
3 



k 



so THIRD PAIIT. I 

Asia a3 a conqUiCror, possessed hirnsclf of Egypt and llid 
Indias, and became master of half tlie kr.own world (IV ' 
century.) At the death of the conqueror the vast empire 
of Macedonia was divided among his four generals : Cas- 
sander had Macedonia ; Lyaimachus, Tlirace ; Seleucus, 
Syria ; and Ptolomy, son of Lagus, Egypt. All these 
kingdoms fell successively under the dominion of tho 
Romans (I century before J. C.) 

The Syrians were a very ancient people : they \vcro 
commercial, populous and wealthy ; they were governed 
at first by their own laws, and under sovereigns little 
Ivuown. They were successively subdued by the Assyri- 
ans, Persians, and Macedonians. At the death of Alex- 
ander the Great, Seleucus became their king and founder 
of the immense kingdom of Syria, which comprehended 
nearly the whole l^ersian cmpiic. The Syrians were il- 
lustrious under the Seleucidian kiiigs, the last of whom, 
Antiochus X, was dethroned by the Roman general 
Pompcy, in the year 63 before J. C. Syria was then 
united to the Roman republic (I century before J. C.) 
Tu the middle age Syria fell into the power of the Sara- 
cens, and at the present day it makes a part of the Otto- 
man empire. 

The rar(Jiin?is, of Scythian origin, had for founder, A::- 
saces, chief of the powerful dynasty of the Arsacides. 
They resisted the Romans for a long time : but Artaxerx- 



What countries tliil Alexamler conrjuer? 
Wliat became of his empire at his deatli ? 
Under whose dominion ihd tlie fragmenis of that empiro 
finally fall ? — Wluit was the early state of the Syrians ? 
Jlow were they at. fir.>t ^ovcrtiecl ? 
]>y whom were tlicy successively stihJued ? 
Whrtt happr-neJ to ilioin at tlie death ofAlexanJer? 
Was the kingdom of Seleucus exten^^ive ? 
W!)at befei the la^t of the Seleiieida' ? 

1 :ider whose power did the Syrians fall in th? !7\iJdle ag:=>? 
Wlio rules over tijern at present ? 
Di.l i-iie Part!»l.-\M> l.m^ resist llie Roman.^? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS, 51 

es, a simple Persian soldier, robbed Artabanus IV of 
his throne and his life, and the kingdom of the Parthians, 
which had lasted nearly five centuries, was transferred to 
the New Persians. 

The J^ew Persians had for founder Artaxerxes, chief of 
the dynasty of the SassaniJ^s, so called from Sassan, his 
grandfather. Sapor I his son and successor, consider- 
ably extended the empire. The Arabians conquered 
tlie Persians in the VH century ; but in the XV century 
a new dynasty rose : it was founded by Ismael Sophi, 
and it still subsists at the present day. The reigning 
prince (1S47) is Feth Ali Sha, born in 1768. 

The Ro?nan Empire of the Kast became an empire 
by itself in the IV century after J. C. (366,) under the 
emperor Valens, from the time of the separation of the 
Roman monarchy into two parts. Three emperors, Gra- 
tian, Valentinian II and Tlieodosius the Great, for a 
moment reunited to it the empire of the West ; but from 
the time of Arcadius, the son and successor of Theodo- 
sius (395) the two empires were always separate. Tlio 
cvijpire of the ^Vest crumbled, in 470, beneath the blows of 
the Huns, the Visigoths, the Franks, &c. The empire of 
the East, called, also, the Lower empire, and the Greek 
empire, fell to decay through the vices of the govern- 
ment. Its provinces were successively invaded by the 

Of what did Arlaxerxes rob Artabanus ? 

To whom was ihe kingdom of the Parlhians then trandferred ? 

AVho extended tlie empire of die New Persians? 

Who conquered them in the VII century ? 

V/ho founded a new dynasty among them in the XV ? 

I^ocs il still subsist? 

What is said of the Roman empire of the east in the fourth 
century after Clirist ? 

What emperors reunited it for a season to the western 
empire ? 

After \s])at emperor were tJie two empires permanently 
sundered ? 

What caused the def^iv of the lower emr)ire? 



52 THIRD PART. 

Saracens and the Turks. In the XIII century the 
Crusaders got possession of Constantinople, the capital, 
and founded a new empire, under the dominion of the 
Franks or Latins. After sixty years the Greeks recaptur- 
ed it; but, in 1453 the empire of the East was destroyed 
by Mahomet IT, emperor of the Turks (XV century). 
Turkey possesses a large part of it at this present day. 



EXERCISES ON THE PRINCIPAL REVOLUTIONS OF 
THE NATIONS OF ANCIENT Ki STORY. 

OBSERVATION. 

The pupil should repeat upon a map of the ancient 
world, the two first analyses, pointing out with prompt- 
ness the cities and nations which are menlioiicd. 

MODEL OF GENERAL QUESTIONS. 

1. What arc tlie principal nations of antiquity thnt you 
encounter in starting from China to go to Iberia, and 
what is the history of those nations 1 

[The points of departure and arrival should be chang- 
ed continually. When the pupil has been sufficiently 
exercised, it will be well to interrupt him, and address 
to him separate questions concerning all the nations which 
he has studied. Afterwards he should be made to return 
to the explanation demanded of him in the first place, by 
the word : Continue.] 

2. How does the ancient history of Egypt, Greece, 
Phenicia. &:c. terminate 1 



What nations invaded it? — What did the crusaders do to it? 
Was it recaptured ?— By whom was it finally destroyed? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE XATIOXS. 53 

3. Who are the great men spoken of in the history of 
Greece, and on what occasion are they spoken of? (The 
same for other nations.) 

4. What cities are spoken of in Roman history ; where 
are they situated ? 

5. How is the history of Egypt, that of Greece, &:c. 
divided. 

[These divisions should always be subordinate to the 
revolutions of the nations to which they belong.] 

6. What nation united under its dominion Persia, 
Greece, &c. ] 

TO BE V/RITTEN : 

A table in which all the first analyses of the ancient 
•nations shall be placed, with taste and propriety : in the 
middle, the map of the ancient world should be drawn ; 
two columns should be devoted to the great men of each 
history, and to the cities of which mention is. made in 
each of them. 

History of tke inidclle age. 

POPES. 

The name pope signifies father ; it was formerly 
given to all bishops ; but after Gregory VII a pope of 
the XI century, it was peculiar to the bishop of Rome. 
'^^he principal source of the temporal greatness of the 
pontiffs commenced under Pepin and his son Charle- 
magne (VIII century); but the greatest extension of 
the power of the Church took place under Gregory VII 
at the end of the XI century. 

Under Urban II (XI century), the crusades com- 



When did the temporal greatness of the popes commence? 
What was the epoch of ihe greatest extension of their power ? 
Under whom did the crusades commence ? 



54 THIRD TART. 

mcnced ; unJci- Leo X of li.e family of the Medici, 
(XVI century), tlie revival of lelters and the reforma- 
tion of Luther took place ; under Clement VIII (XVI 
century), the separation from Rome, or the religious le- 
form of England. 

The French, under Napoleon, invaded the States of the 
Church, two popes were led prisoners into France, Pius 
VI and Pius VII (XVIII century) ; but in 1815 the 
congress of Vienna restored to the holy see its property, 
with the exception of the country of the Venaissin. 

Pius IX is at present pope (1817). 

THE FRENCH. 

The Franks obtained possession of Gaul during the 
decline of the Roman empire, and under Clovis, their 
king, (V century,) they founded the kingdom of France. 
Three principal races or dynasties have governed the 
French until the present day. 

The Merovingian, under which we remark the estab- 
lishment of Christianity, and the defeat of the Saracens by 
Charles Martel, a French prince. The feebleness of the 
kings caused the fall of that dynasty. 

The Carlovingian, under which we notice Charle- 
magne, (VIII century,) who extended his power over 



Under whom did die revival of letters ami ihe reformation 
of Luther take place ? — The En^rlish reform ? 
Who invaded the Stales of the Churcl) ? 
What popes were led prisoners into France ? 
What was done at the conj^ress of Vienna ? 
When did the Franks obtain possession of Gaul ? 
Under whom Vv^as the kingdom of France founded ? 
How many dynasties have fjoverned the French ? 
What took place under the Merovingian ? 
What caused its fall ? 

What distinguished monarch of the Carlovingian dynasfy ? 
How far did he extend his power ? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. ,06 

almost the whole of Europe, bat vvlilj vvliom the gh>ry uf 
the nation was £ov a time extinguislied. 

The Caj}cUa/c, under which great events took place, 
each as the crusades, tlic wars with England, the Italian 
wars, and the religious wjffs. Among tlie families of this 
race, we distinguish that of the Boiirhons, which raised 
France to its highest point of glory. 

In 17S9 a terrible revolution broke out, and in Vi^j2 
France was constituted a repuhUc, Erected into an €ni- 
lurc in 1804, it was governed by Najwlcon, who gave 
laws to nearly the whole of Europe. Finally, after sevcrrd 
alternations of success and defeat, the family of the Botir- 
bons reascended the throne in J 611. The revolution of 
1S30 precipitated from it the elder branch of that family. 
The younger branch succeeded in the person of Louis 
Philippe 1 born the G'^^- of October, 1773. This new 
Jynasty may be called the Orleanian. 

LOMBARDS, 

Tlie Lombards came from the shores of the Ba'ltic 
sea ; they invaded the north of Italy, where they founded 
a kingdom under Alboin, their first king, in the VI cen- 
tury. Two centuries afterwards they were subdued by 
(vharlemagne, king of France, who vanquished DIdier, 

What is said of the nation at his death ? 

What events took place under the Capctian dynasty ? 

Wiiat distinguished family of this race ? 

What happened to France in 1789 ? 

When was it constituted a republic ? 

When, and by whom, erected into an empir'^? 

Wljat family reascended the throne in 1814 ? 

What was elFected by the revoluiion of 183C ? 

Who succeeded tlie elder branch ? 

Whence did the Lombards oricinally come ? 

What country did they invade? 

Under whom did they found a kin_c;dom in Italy ? 

What befel ihem fvo centuries nfirrward ? 



55 THIRD PART. 

their last king. Lombardy afterward made a part of the 
kingdom of France. After many vicissitudes, it has fall- 
en to the empire of Austria. 

SPANIARDS. 

The Visigoths established themselves in Spain, after 
having vanquished the Suevi, the Alani and the Vandals; 
the monarchy which they founded was destroyed by the 
Moors in the VIII century; but by little and little they 
reconquered their provinces, and in 1474 (XV centu- 
ry) the marriage of Isabella of Castille, with Ferdinand 
V of Arragon, witnessed the commencement of the history 
of Spain properly speaking. The Moors were then ex- 
pelled, and the house of Austria came to the throne in Spain. 
Charles Fifth (XVI century) was its hero, and Charles 
II its last king (L700). The house of Bourbon then inhe- 
rited that country ; Philip V, grandson of Louis XIV, 
was its first king. In 1808 Charles IV was obliged to 
abdicate the crown, which Napoleon gave to his brother 
Joseph. Ferdinand VII, son of Charles IV, reascended 
the throne in 1814 : born the 14"'^- of October, 1784, 
ho died the 29i^- of September, 1833. His daughter Isa- 
bella II succeeded him. 



or what kinn;ilom did Lombardy form a part after Charle- 
magne ? — Of what empire is it now a part ? 

What is said of the Visifjoths? 

By v/hom was their monarchy destroyed in the VIII cen- 
turv? — Did thf^y re-establish it? 

VVirh what event does the history of Spain, properly speak- 
ing, commence? — When were the Moors expelled? 

When did the house of Ausiria 1)eo;in to rein;n in Spain? 

Who was the hero of f hit house?— Who its last king? 

What family next inherited the crown ? 

Who was obliije 1 to abdicate the crown in 1808 ? 

To whom did NjipoIpoh s;ive it ? 

When did Ferfllnand VII reascend the throne ? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 57 

ARABIAXS. 

The Arabians conquered, under Mahomet, their lav/- 
giver, (VII century), a great part of Asia. After the 
death of their prophet, under their califs, they gained 
possession of the north of Africa and Spain, and advanced 
even into France, from v/hich they were driven. The 
principal families which governed the Arabs are the O/jz- 
miades and the Ahassides. After many vicissitudes the 
Turks reduced them under their dominion. 

MOORS. 

The Moors v/ere a mixture of the descendants of the 
Mauritanians and of the Arabs or Saracens, who subdued 
them, and with whom they passed into Spain in the 
VIII century. They made themselves masters of that 
country, from which th^y were expelled, in 1492, by 
Ferdinand V, the Catholic. Boabdil was their last king. 

SWEDES. 

The origin of the Swedes is obscure ; it does not be- 
come interesting before the XIV century, when Mar- 
garet of Valdemar united on her head the crowns of 
Norway, Sweden and Denmark (1397). The cruelties 



Whom did the Arabians conquer under Mahomet? 
What did they accomplish under the califs. 
From what country were they repelled ? 
What are the principal fiiniilies wliich governed theai ? 
Under whose domhiion were they finally reduced ? 
From whom were the Moors descended ? 
By whom were they subdued ? 
With whom did ihey pass into Spain ? 
Of what country did they make themselves masters ? 
When v^^ere they expelled from it? — By whom? 
Who was their last king; ? 

With whom were the Swedes united in 1397 ? 
3* 



58 THIRD PART. 

of Christiem II caused a revolution wliich placed the 
crown of Sweden upon the head of Gustavus Wasa; in 
1523 that prince established Lutheranism in his domin- 
ions. 

Three families have governed Sweden : first, that of 
Wasa, (XVI century) ; second, that o£ Dcux-Poits, (XVII 
century); whose first king was diaries X, ai.d its hero 
Charles XII, surnamed the Alexander of the North; 
third, the house of HoUteui Eutin, whose first king was 
Adolphus Frederic (XVIII century). A revolution broke 
out in 1772 under Gustavus III, who was assassinat- 
ed at a ball twenty years afterward. A French general, 
Bernadotte, reigned until recently over the Swedes, un- 
der the name of Charles XIV. Their present king is 
Oscar I, Norway was united to Sweden in 1815. 

ENGLISH. 

The English and the Saxons possessed themselves of 
Britain by treachery, and founded a heptarchy, which 
lasted until 827, when Egbert was ojipointed king of 
England. Many families have governed the English : 
the Saxons, (IX century), the Danes, the Normans, 
(XI century), the Angcvi/is or Planta genets, (XII cen- 
tury), the Lancastcrs, (XIV century), the Yorks, (XV 



"What produced a revolution in Sweden ? 

Upon whom was the crown conferred? 

What religion did Gustavus establish in hi!? dominions? 

What three families have e,overned Sweden? 

What happened there in 1772? 

Who was assassinated at a ball ? 

Who reigned until recently over the Swedes ? 

When was Norway united (o Sweden ? 

IIow did the English and Saxons get possession of Britain? 

What did they found there? 

When was the monarchy established there ? 

What families have governed the English? 



VICISSITUDES GF THE NATIONS. 59 

century), the Tudors, (XVI ceiiiuvy), the Stuarts, 
XVII century), and the house of Branswick-llanover. 
The most remarkable events of English history are: the 
wars of France, from William the Conqueror, (XI cen- 
tury), to Edward IV, (XV century) ; the civil war of 
the two Roses, or the pretensions of Lancaster and York 
to the throne, in the XV century; the schUm or separa- 
tion of England from Rome under Henry VIII (XVI 
century); the brilliant reign of Elizabeth; the revolu- 
tions which took place under Charles I, Stuart, who 
mounted the scaffold in 1649; and under AViiliam III, 
in 1G88; finally the revolution of the Anglo-Americans 
(1782), under the house of Brunswick-Hanover (XVII I 
century). Victoria I, is at present on the throne (1817). 
She was born the 19^^- of May, 1819. 

THE POLES. 

The Poles ore o{ Sarmatlan origlii. The posterity of 
hechus, their first founder, (VI century), being extinct, 
Piast was recognized as Duke of Poland in the IX cen- 
tury. The most remarkable family is that of the Jagel- 
K/US. After its extinction the throne became elective. 

At the end of the XVIII century great disturbances - 
led to the partition of Poland, in three parts, between 
Prussia, Russia and Austria. At present Poland exists 
no longer as a particular kingdom; the duchy of Var- 
eovia forms a vice-royalty v/hich belongs to Russia. 



What arc llic most remari^able events In the history of Eng- 
land ? 

What took place among the Poles when the family of Le- 
chu«! became extinct ? 

What was the most remarkable family in that country ? 

After its extinction how was the throne disposed of? 

What befel Poland at the end of the XVill ccnlnry ? 

What is llie present slate of Poland ? 



60 THIRD PART. 

In 1830 the Poles revolted against the Russians, but 
this attempt at liberty was not successful. 

RUSSIANS. 

The Russians descended from the ancient Sarmatiansj 
they have been governed by many families, such as those 
ofRurick, (IX century), and of Valdimir, (X century); 
but the most celebrated is that of Romanof. Peter the 
Great, one of the princes of that house, raised Russia 
from obscurity, and gave birth there to the sciences, in- 
dustry and commerce. Catherine II, of the family of 
Holstein-Gonorp, covered herself with glory by her great 
enterprises; her vessels pushed their navigation as far as 
the Dardanelles (XVIlt century.) Nicholas I, her grand- 
son, is at present upon the throne of Russia, (1847); he 
was born the 6^^- of July, 1796. 

GERMANS. 

The Germans inhabit the country of the ancient Alle- 
mani ; they courageously resisted the Romans, who were 
n()t able entirely to subdue them. Charlemagne (VIII 
century) defeated that part of the nation called Saxons, 
constrained them to embrace the christian religion, and 
beheld himself master of Germany. At the death of 
Louis the Debonair, his son, Germany was separated 
from France. Lothaire was acknowledged king; the 



What took place in Poland in 1830 ? 

By what families have the Russians been governed ? 

Which is the most celebrated of them ? 

Who Vv^as the most famous prince of that house? 

What did he accomplish for Russia? 

Ho'.v did Catherine T! distinsuish herself? 

What country do the Germans inhabit? 

What is said of them in reference to the Romans? 

What did Charlemagne do to the Saxons ? 

What befel Germany at the death of his son ? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 61 

Carlovinglan race maintained itself there until 911, when 
it ended in the person of Louis IV, called the Infant. 

Then the empire became elective. Conrad, Duke of 
Franconia and Hesse, was raised to the imperial dignity 
and may be regarded as tlie first emperor of Germany. 

Towards the end of the XllI century (1273) Rodolph, 
Count of Hapsburg, first prince of the house of Austria, 
was acknowledged Emperor. 

In 1519 the Empire was united to Spain in the person 
of Charles V ; but that union ceased after his abdica- 
tion, in 1554. The house of Austro-Lorraine is at pre- 
sent on the throne ; but it reigns only over the Austrian 
empire. Ferdinand I, is emperor (1847). He \Yas 
born the 19*- of April, 1793. 

• DANES. 

The commencement of the history of the Danes is un- 
certain. Towards the end of the XIV century Queen 
Margaret united under her sceptre the three crowns of 
the North. Sweden detached itself in 1523, but Norway 
remained united to Denmark, at first as a province, and 
afterward as an independent kingdom. The royal dynas- 
ty of Skioldun!? beinof extinguished in 1448, the Count 
Christierii of Oldenburg succeeded it and brought to Den- 



What race maintained itself there till 911 ? 
In whom did the Carlovingian race terminate ? 
What did the em])ire tl-.en become ? 
Who was first raised to the imperial dignity ? 
Will) was acknowledged emperor towards tlie end of the 
XIII century ? 

When and in whose person was the empire united to Spain ? 

When did that union cease ? 

What house is at present en the thrJ^ie ? 

To what couinry is its dominion confined ? 

When were the'Danes united to Norway and Sweden? 

Was this union permanent ? 

What dynasty became extinct in IMS ?— Who succeeded it? 



60 THIRD TAUT. 

mark the two fine provinces of Slcswick and Ilolstcin. 

In IGGO a revolution took place vvliich entirely changed 
the form of government. 

At the commencement of the XVI II century, Den- 
mark had to sustain against Sweden an unhappy war, 
which did not terminate until 1720. After that epoch it 
enjoyed peace until 1801 and 1807, when Copenhagen 
was bombarded by the English. In 1813 and 1814 Den- 
mark formed a part of the coalition against France. Nor- 
way was ceded to Sweden in 1815. Christiern VIII is 
at present upon the throne (1817). He was born tiie 
18'»^- of September, 1786, 

HUXGARIANS. 

The Hungarians occupy a considerable part of the 
ancient Pannonia, which was twice conquered by the 
Huns : Charlemagne, in 764, united it to the French 
monarchy. Saint Stephen is regarded as the first king of 
Hungary (in the middle of the X century). 

Charles Martel, son of Charles of Anjou, king of Na- 
ples, and of Mary, daughter of Stephen IV^, king of 
Hungary, succeeded to the crown in 1302. 

In the XIV century (1383) the emperor Sigismoml, 
king of Bohemia, became king of Hungary by right of 



What accessions did he bring to Denmark ? 

What took plaec in 1660 ? 

What war did Denmark carry on during the XVIII cen- 
tury? — How long after this did it enjoy peace 7 

By what event was the peace broken up ? 

What is said of Denmark in 1813-14 ? 

What cession did she make in 1815 ? 

Who is the reigning king of Sweden ? 

By whom was the country of the Hungarian? tvvjcc con- 
quered ? 

What bcfel Hungary under C])arlcmagne ? 

Who was the first king of Hungary ? 

Who succeeded to the crown in 1302 ? 

Who became king of Hungary in 1383 by right of his wife ? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. C3 

his wife, but, in the XV century (1438) that kingdom 
recovered anew its independence under the empire of 
TJladislas, 

In the XVI century (1540) Solyman, sultan of the 
Turks, possessed himself of the better part of this coun- 
try, and the emperor, Ferdinand I, seized the rest. 

In 16S7 Leopold Ignatius caused the crown of Hun- 
gary, which was hereditary in the house of Austria, to 
pass to the head of the orch-duke Joseph, his son, who 
became emperor, under the name of Joseph II. Since 
that time the kingdom of Hungary has depended on the 
Austrian empire. 

NEAFOLITANS AND SICILIANS. 

The kingdom of Naples occupies the ancient Magna, 
Grecia ; that southern part of Italy passed successively 
to the Romans, the Goths, the Lombards, and the Arabs, 
until the time when the Normans, returning from the 
holy land, took possession of it (XI century). 

The sons of Tancred of Hauteville, Norman seigneurs, 
caused themselves to be named dukes of Apulia and 
Calabria; the first duke was Robert Guiscard ; his grand- 
son, Roger II, was created king of Sicily and duke of 
Naples. 

The emperor Henry IV, of tlie family of Suabia, united 
Sicily to the empire (XII century) ; but at the extinc- 
tion of that house the pope. Urban IV, gave the crown 



When, and under whom, did that country recover its inde- 
pendence ? — What befel it in the XVI century ? 

What happened to Hungary in 1687 ? 

What country does the kingdom of Naples occupy ? 

What nations successively possessed that country ? 

Who caused themselves to be nominated dukes of Apulia 
and Calabria ? 

Who was created king of Sicily and duke of Naples ? 

Who united Sicily to the empire ? 



64 THIRD PART. 

of Naples and Sicily to Charles of Anjou, brother of Saint 
Louis : under that prince, the massacre of the French, 
called the Sicilian Vespers, took place. After many 
vicissitudes, after having experienced reverses and ob- 
tained success, the French beheld themselves obliged to 
renounce the kingdom of Naples, to which tlicy had 
claims ; and in 1734 the infanta of Spain, Don Carlos, son 
of Philip V, and great-grand-son of Louis XIV, mount- 
ed the throne. In him began the Sicilian house of Bour- 
bon, represented at present by Ferdinand II (1811). 
He was born the 12^^- of January, ISIO. 

PORTUGUESE. 

Portugal, formerly called Lusitania, made a part of 
Spain until the XII century, (1139,) the epoch at which 
Alphonso Henriquez, of the family of the Capets, took 
the title of king. The dynasty of Avis succeeded that of 
Capetian Burgundy in 1383 ; John I was its first king. 
It was under this family, and especially during the reign 
of Emmanuel tlie Great, that the Portuguese became 
very powerful by their conquests in the two Indies. The 
Spaniards commanded in Portugal from 1580 to 1640. 
The house of Brao^anza then ascended the throne in the 



What happened at the extinction of the Suabian family ? 

Wluit massacre took place under Charles of Anjou ? 

^yhat is said of the French claims to this country ? 

Who mounted the throne in 1734 ? 

Y/hat royal house began in him ? 

Bv Avhom is that house at present represented ? 

What was Portugal formerly called ? 

Of Vvhat country did it make a part until 1139 ? 

Who became king at that epoch ? 

What dynasty succeeded ? 

What is said of Portugal under Emmanuel llie Great ? 

During what period did the Spaniards command in Portugal? 

What famiTy then ascended the throne ? 



VICISSITUDES OF TKE NATIONS. 65 

person of John IV, and still occupies it. Donna Maria is 
at present on the throne (1847). She was born the 4^^- 
of April, 1819. 

BOHEAIIANS. 

It is thought that the Bohemians are the descendants 
of the Boiae, Gauls of the Bourbonnaise, who, in the 
VI century before J. C, went, under the conduct of 
Sigovesus, to found a colony in Germany ; they were 
driven out by the Marcomanni, afterward by the Escla- 
vonians. Zecco, at the head of a powerful army, came 
from the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and advanced into Bo- 
hemia in the VI century after J. C. Bohemia was for- 
merly a dependency of the Empire. In 1618 the crown 
was acknowledged hereditary in the house of Austria, 
which had long possessed it by election. 

SWISS. 

The Swiss formcily bore the name of Helvetians ; in 
the XIII century Helvetia depended on the German 
empire. A part of that country was the domain of the 
lionse of Austria, as Fribourg, Lucerne, Zug, Claris. The 
tyranny of the imperial governors exasperated men's 
minds ; under the emperor Albert, the cantons of Schv/itz, 
Uri, and Unterwald, gave the signal of independence. 

V/ho reia;ns there at present? 

From wliom are the Bohemians thought to have descended ? 
Who drove the Boiu3 from Germany ? 
What is said of Zecco ? 

V/as Bohemia once a dependency of the empire ? 
What took place in 1648? 
What were the Swiss formerly called ? 
Of what was Helvetia a dependenc}'-? 
. To whom did a part of that country belong? 
What exasperated the minds of the Helvetians^ 
What took place among them under the emperor Albert? 



66 THIRD PART. 

A formidable army of Germans v/as conqucrc<] at tlic 
pass of Morgarten. In 1308 Switzerland had become 
free, and her independence was acknowledged at the 
treaty of Westphalia, in 1G48. Among the liberators of 
Switzerland, we notice William Tell, celebrated for l;i,3 
address in archery (XIV century). 

The Swiss confederation successively increased : it 
reckoned at first thirteen cantons; Napoleon, in 1802, 
added to it six, and in 1815 the allied powers united to 
it those of Geneva and the Valais, and that of Neufchatel, 
which acknowledged the king of Prussia as sovereign. 
Revolutions agitated that country in 1S33. 



M o «E e r II II I s t o t- y . 

TURKS. 

The Turks are originally from Asia ; they possessed 
tfjcmselvos of Asia Minor, and under 0th man or Oihoman, 
they founded a monarchy (XIII century) which became 
powerful; in 1453 ]SIahomet gained possession of Con- 
etantinoplo and a part of the countries which composed 
the Eastern empire ; since that time great disturbances 
and revolutions have agitated the Turkish government. 



Who were conquered at tlie pass of Morgarten ? « 
When was Switzerland enfranchised? 
When and where was her independence acknowleOgrd ? 
Who is distinguished among her liberators? 
Has the Swiss confederation increased ? • 

What was the state of Switzerland in 1833 ? 
Where did the Turks originate? 
Of what country did they possess themselves? 
Wliat is said of the monarcliy which they founded there ? 
Of what countries did Mahomet gain possession? 
AVhai has been the state of the Turkish government since 
the time of Mahomet 1 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. €7 

from wliich the powers of Europe have detached Greece. 
Abdal-Medjib is now upon the throne (18-17) ; Ije waa 
born the 19^*^- of April, 1S23. 

AMERICANS IX GENERAL. 

It is supposed that America was known to \.he ancients, 
but it was only in 1492 that a Genoese named Christopher 
(.'olunibus, seeking a passage to the west, by which to 
reach the Indies, made the first discovery of it for iis. 
Starting from Gomera, one of the Canaries, in three ves- 
sels which Isabella of Castille, the wife of Ferdinand V 
had given him, he touched at San Salvador or Guanahani, 
one of the Bahama islands. In several successive voyages, 
he discovered the gieat and little Antilles, which he nam- 
ed the West Indies ; finally, in 149S he saw the conti- 
nent to which the name of America v.as ffiven, from 
Amcricus Vespucius, a Florentine navigator, who sailed 
along its coasts, and published in Europe the narrative of 
his voyage. 

ANGLO-AMERICANS. — (UNITED STATES.) 

In the XVI century, under the reign of Elizabelh, 
the English, at whose head Walter Raleigh was found, 
formed colonies upon the coasts of North America. The 
possessions of these new colonists received successively 
large increase ; but the mv>ther-country having attempted 
to subject them to the payment of imposts, they revolted 

What country has been detached from Turkey by the powers 

of Europe ? 

Who is now upon ihe throne ? 

Was America known to the ancients? — Who discovered it 
in modern times ? — Can you describe his first voyage ? 

What did he discover in subsequent voyages? 

After whom was America named? 

At what time were colonies first founded on the coasts of 
North America ? — By whom ? — Did these colonies increase ? 

What caused the revolution ? 



G8 THIRD PART. 

and made themselves independent. In 1782 they consti- 
tuted themselves a republic, and their first president was 
Georjje Washinsfton, who had commanded the American 
armies during the war. Since then the possessions of 
the United States have been extended, and at present 
that republic numbers twenty-six States. 

MEXICANS. 

In 1520 the Spaniards, commanded by Fernando Cor- 
tez, a simple lieutenant of Velasquez, governor of Cuba, 
effected the conquest of Mexico. The native Mexicans, 
already civilized, were at that time governed by Monte- 
zuma, who was made prisoner by Cortez, and whom his 
own subjects slew in an insurrection. The Spaniards 
continued masters of Mexico until 1821, the epoch of a 
revolution which terminated by the acknowledgment of 
Mexican independence. Afterward, an obscure leader, 
namcvd Iturbide, caused himself to be acknowledged em- 
peror ; but he did not reign long, and the Mexicans are 
etill, at the present day, constituted as a republic. 

PERUVIANS. 

The Peruvians were governed nearly four centuries 
by kings nanjed Incas ; industry had made much more 

When (lid iho colonies form tliemselves into a republic ? 
Who was their first president ? 

Have the possessions of the United States since increased ? 
Of how many states do they now consist ? 
Who conquered Mexico in 1520 ? 
Bv whom were the Mexicans then governed ? 
V/hat became of him ? 

How long did the Spaniards continue masters of Mexico? 
What took place in Mexico in 1821 ? 
Who was afterward acknowledged emperor? 
Did he reign long? 

Under what form of government are the Mexicans at pre- 
sent ? 

By whom were the Peruvians governed for four centuries? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 69 

progress among them than with the Mexicans, when a 
Spaniard named Francis Pizarro subdued them in 1525. 
Atabalipa at that time occupied the throne ; he was 
strangled by the Spaniards. In 1808 a revolution broke 
out, and Peru was deffiiiitively declared a republic in 
1821. General Saint Martin was appointed protector. 
General Santa Cruz was appointed president in 1838. 

BRAZILIANS. 

Pierre Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguese admiral, having 
been driven westward by head-winds, discovered the 
coast of Brazil in 1500. 

The Hollanders got possession of that country in 1624 ; 
but, after many vicissitudes, the Portuguese recovered 
full possession of it in 1G61, by paying eight tuns of gold 
to Holland. 

In 1824 Don Pedro, at first vice-roy of Brazil for his 
father, John VI, king of Portugal, took the title of 
emperor. A military revolution compelled him, in 1831, 
to fly to Europe ; Don Pedro II, his son, succeeded 
him ; he was born the 2-"^- of December, 1825. 

• 
COLUMBIANS. 

The Columbians, who inhabit the northern part of 
south America, once belonged to the dominion of Spain ; 

In what are they said to have surpassed the Mexicans ? 

Who subdued them in 1525 ? 

What inca then occupied the throne ? 

Wliat became of him? — What happened in 1808 ? 

When was Peru declared a republic? 

Who was appointed protector? — Who president in 1838? 

Who discovered Brazil ? 

Who got possep>;on of the country in 1G24 ? 

When did the Portuguese recover possession of it, and how? 

Who became the emperor of Brazil in 1824 ? 

Why was he compelled to fly to Europe, and when? 

Who succeeded hiin? 

Under vvliose dominion were the Columbians originally ? 



70 TIIIIJD PAPvT. 

but afler many revolutioris, the independence of Columbia 
was proclaimed in 1819. Bolivar, who had contributed to 
ils enfranchisement, received the title of liberator. Eng- 
land formally recognised the republic of Columbia in 1825. 

BUEXOS AYRIANS. 

Buenos Ayres v/as originally a Spani&h colony. In 
1S06 the English made a descent upon that country, but 
they were repulsed by general Liniers. In ISIO the in- 
habitants revolted from Spain, and the independence of 
Buenos Ayres was proclaimed in IS 16. 

CIIILTAXS. 

Almagro, the companion, and afterwards the victim of 
I^izarro, first penetrated into Chili ; but it was Peter 
Valdivia who subdued that country, in 1540. He built 
Sun I ago and La Conception. Chili was occupied witli 
achieving her independence in 1510, and in 181S was 
erected into a republic. 

IIAITIEXS. 

The island of Saint Domingo was discovered by Chris- 
topher Columbus in H92. The Spaniards remained 



When was their independence proclaimed? 
Wl]() received ihc title of liberator? 

By what natio!] was the republic of Columbia rccognLscd in 
1805? — What was Buenos Ayres originally ? 
Who made a descent on tlial country in iSOG? 
By whom were they rej)ulsed ? 

What events took place in Buenos Ayres in 1810 and 181C? 
Who first penetrated into Clali ? 
Wlio subdued ihatcounirv in 1-340? 
What cities did he build ? 
How was Chili occupied in 1810 ? 
Wlicn was it erected into a republic? 
When and !>v whom %vas Saint Domino;o discovered ? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. Tl 

maitera of it until the XVl century, when a colony -of 
French and English unitetl, took possession of the country. 
Driven out in their turn by the Spanish, they withdrew 
to the island of Tortuga. France, at a later period, pos- 
sessed herself of a part of the island. In 1791 an iissur- 
lection broke out, and the whole French part of the island 
presented nothing but a field of carnage and desolation : 
the Blacks and the Mulattoes slaughtered the Whites. 
In ISOl the Blacks proclaimed their independence. After 
many internal revolutions, the enfranchisement of Saint 
Domingo was acknowledged by France, under Charles 
X ; atid Boyer was chosen president in 1841. 

HOLLANDERS AND BELGIANS. 

Holland was formerly a part of Belgic Gaul ; it was 
do:i.}uered in the I century by Julius Casar; it after- 
wards passed successively to the Franks, the counts of 
liainault, the dukes of Burgandy, and the house of Austria, 
The king of Spain, Philip, by his tyranny, lost that couv:- 
tiy, whose independence was recognised at tlie treafy of 
Munoter or Westpluilla, in 161S. In 1794 Holland was 
invaded by France, the stadlholderate abolished, and the 
count]y constituted into the Batavian republic. In 180G, 



Who were masters of it until ilie XVI century ? 
Who next took possession of it ? 
}>v whom were they J riven out? 

What country afterward possessed a part of die islaaJ ? 
What happened iu ITTa ? 

When did the Blacks proclahn their independence? 
Under whom did the French acknowledg:e the enfranchi 
nicnt of Ilayti? — Who v/as its first president ? 

(.)r what ilomau province was Ilolhnnd once a part ? 
l^y whom was it conquered in the I century? 
To w iiom did it afterward successively pass ? 
What monarch lost that country by his lyranny ? 
Where and wiien was its independence recognised ? 
What t.»k place in 1791?— In 130G? 



.^2 THIRD PART. 

Bona^oarte made a kingdom of it, in favor of Louis, one 
of his brothers, but he soon divided the kingdom into 
departments which he united to France. In 1S15 Hol- 
land was reunited to Belgium, and formed only one king- 
dam, under the name of the Low Countries (Pays-Bas) ; 
William I of Orange became its king; but in 1830 the 
Belgians revolted, and the separation of the two states 
was proclaimed by the powers of Europe. William of 
Orange retained the throne of Pfolland ; he was born the 
24th. of August, 1772. Leopold of Saxe Coburg ascended 
that of Beloium; he was born the 16^^- of December, 1790. 



PRUSSIANS. 

The Prussians, of Sarmatian origin, were not consti- 
tuted a monarchy until 1701. Frederic, elector of Bran- 
denburg, was their first king ; his grandson, Frederic IT, 
surnamed the Great, at his accession to the throne in 
1740, invaded Silesia by the assistance of France ; he had 
to sustain, in 175G, a formidable coalition : his genius 
prevented him from succumbing. William II, his suc- 
cessor, had a feeble reign ; he dissipated the treasures 
amassed by Frederic. William HI declared war with 
France, and formed a part of that coalition which brought 
the foreigners to Paris. Frederic William IV, his son, 
reigns at present (1847) ; he was born the 15^^^ of Octo- 
ber, 1795. 



What occurred to Holland in 1805 ? 
Who became its king ? — What took place in 1830 ? 
Who retained the throne of Holland ? 
Who ascended that of Belgium? 
When were the Prussians constituted a monarchy ? 
Who was their first king? — Who his successor ? 
What country did he invade ? — How was he occupied in 
1756 ?— What is said of William H ? 
Who is the present king of Prussia ? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 73 

SARDINIANS. 

The Sardinian States are composed of Savoy proper, 
Piedmont and Sardinia. Savoy vv-as, under the Ro- 
mans, included in Transalpine Gaul ; it passed succes- 
sively to the Burgundians and the emperors of Germany ; 
and in the XI century (1040) Conrad, emperor of Ger- 
many, gave it in full property to Humbert the white- 
handed Saint Maurice, the Valais, and the Chablais. His 
descendants soon extended their dominions by their con- 
quests. Meanwhile the sovereigns had only the title of 
counts of Savoy; Amedeus VII took the title of duke, 
and Victor Amedaeus II, in 1713, being master of Sicily, 
caused himself to be declared king. Sardinia was after- 
ward given him in exchange for that island ; hence the 
title of king of Sardinia, which v/as accorded him in 
1718. Charles Albert, born the 2^'^- of October, 1798, 
reigns at present ; he is of the family of Carignan. 

BAVARIANS. 

Bavaria anciently made a part of the Rhcetis, of Ven- 
delicia and of Noricum. The Boiae came to inhabit it 
under the emperor Augustus ; it was successively govern- 
ed by kings, dukes, counts dependent on Charlemagne, 
and by the electors of Bavaria. On the P^- of January, 

How are the Sardinian states composed ? 

What changes has Savoy undergone IVum the lime of the 
Romans? 

What did the descendents of Humbert accomplish ? 

What title had the sovereigns of Savoy until the time of 
Ameda)us III ? — What title did he assume ? 

Who was declared king in 1713? 

What country was given him in exchange for Sicily ? 

How did the title of " king of Sardinia " originate ? 

Of what countries did Bavaria anciently form a part? 

Under whom did the Boia? take possession of it? 

By whom was it governed until Maximilian ? 
4 



74 TH115D PAKT. 

1S05, IMciximilian Joseph assumed ll;e title of king. Ba- 
varia has since been considerably enlarged. Louis I is 
its pre3ent king (1S47); he was bom the 2o^'>- of August, 

17SG. 

SAXONS. 

Tiie Saxona, in the time of Cliarleraagnc, (VlII cen- 
tury), extended as far as the banks of the Rhine; Wili- 
kind, their chief, struggled a long time against the entire 
strength of the em^^ire, and was finally subdued. It is in 
the IX century that the series- of the dukes of Saxor.y, 
Avhich is continued to the present time, begins. From the 
})eriod of tlic dissolution of the Germanic body, electoral 
Saxony was erected into a kingdom (1806) in favor of 
Frederic Augustus. It was dismembered in 1814, by the 
conr^ress of Vienna, in favor of the kin"' of Prussia. The 
reigning king is Antliony, born the 27'^^^- CNf December, 
1755: the co-recront, Frederic Auo;ustus Albert Maria, 

7 CD ' O ' 

nephew of the king, was born the 18'^^- of May, 1797. 

WURTEMBURGEUS. 

Wurtemburg fi^rmerly made a part of the duchy of 
Suabia, and was erected into a county by the empe- 
ror Henry IV, (XI century,) in favor of Conrad. The 
dukes of Wurtemburg were dependents of the empire. 

What title did he assume ? 
Plas Bavaria been since enlarged ? 

How far did the Saxons extend in the time of Cliarleniaone? 
What is said ofWitikind? 
When does the linv'^ of Saxon dukes begin ? 
When was electoral Saxony erected into a kingdom ? 
When was it dismembered ? — B}' whom? — In whose favor? 
Who is the reigning king ? — Who co-regcnt ? 
Of what duchy was Wurtemburg formerly a part ? 
By whom and when erected into a kingdom ? 
Of what power was the duohy of Wurtemburg a depen 
dency ? 



VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 75 

Frederic II, clothed with the electoral dignity in 1803, 
^vas created king in 1805 by Napoleon. William, his 
5on, reigns at present ; he was born the 27'^^- of Septem- 
ber, 1781. 

MODERN GREEKS. 

Greece was subdued by the Romans in the II cen- 
:ury before J. C; she afterwards made a part of the 
3astern empire during eleven centuries. After the fall of 
hat empire she remained for a long time under the do- 
minion of the Turks. Enslaved under the heavy yoke of 
the Mahometans, she sought many times to reconquer her 
iiberry ; finally, in 1821 a bloody revolution broke out, 
which was terminated only by the intervention of the 
European powers, and especially of France. Greece is 
free ; Capo d'lstria, one of the chiefs of the new republic, 
was assassinated in 1831. Greece has just been erected 
into a kingdom ; Otho, of Bavaria, was her first governor 
(1841) ; he was born the l«t- of June, 1815. 



What is said of Frederic II ? 

At v.hat era was Greece subdued by ihe Romans? 

How long did she make a part of the Eastern ciripire ? 

Under wlial dominion did she then fall ? 

Did she seek to recover bcr liberty ? 

What is said of the revolution in 1821 ? 

Who was Capo d'Istria? What was his fate? 

What is tiic present form of govcrnmert in Greece? 



FOURTH TATLT. 

GENERAL HISTORY. 

Brief Review. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 

God gave birth to the universe, the first human beings 
incurred his vengeance; a terrible catastrophe left upon 
the earth only a single family, that of Noah. Human 
beings multiplied, families collected, nations were formed, 
emigrations proceeded from Asia, tlie cradle of the hu- 
man race : the globe was peopled, governments were es- 
tablished, wants and communications gave birth to la?i- 
guagcs, commerce and the arts, and gradually force and 
justice lent each other mutual assistance. 

Among the nations which succeeded one to another, 
we see the Egyptians, the most celebrated by their wis- 
dom, by their laws and their arts ; the Hebrcivs, long the 
privileged people of God, but whose vices and divisions 
caused their ruin ; the Assyrians, whose luxury and 
^vealth induced their fall ; the Phenicians, commercial 
and industrious, who extended their relations into the 
greater part of the ancient world ; they were the ances- 
tors of those CartJiaginians whom, the Romans, after three 
bloody wars, efiaced from the list of nations ; the Medes 
and the Persians, two kingdoms formed from the frag- 
ments of the Assyrian empire, and who fell, like it, not- 
withstanding the genius of Cyrus, the conquests of Cam- 
byses and the formidable expeditions of Darius and 
Xerxes ; the Greeks^ of Egyptian or Asiatic origin, who 



GENERAL HISTORY. 77 

performed one of the principal parts in ancient history ; 
Egypt had formed their poets and lawgivers ; they instruct- 
ed their conquerors, the Romans, in their turn, and left 
even after their fall, a memory which their unequalled ex- 
cellence in literature and the fine arts has rendered immor- 
tal ; the Macedonians, who reckoned under their domin- 
ion Asia, Greece and a part of Africa, by the conquests 
of the great Alexander; and the Romans, whose history 
becomes, from his time, that of the whole v/orld. Three 
great wtirriors made that conquering people tremble ; 
Brennus, chief of the Gauls; Hannibal, general of the 
Carthaginians, and Mithridates, king of Pontus. From a 
monarchy Rome had become a repuhlic ; from a republic 
it became an empire. A single 7nan commanded the 
earth ; but the greater part of these dominators were ty- 
rants. One of the emperors, Constantino, under the 
auspices of a henejiccnt religion, divided the strength of the 
empire by founding a new capital. From misfortune to 
misfortune, from foult to fomlt, the Roman colossus was 
v/eakened, and crumbled beneath the strokes of a multi- 
tude of harharous nations, and upon its ruins (476) new 
States arose, which still exist. 

History of the I^iddlc Age. 

The Visigoths, the Vandals, the Siicvi, the Alani, the 
Burgundians, the Franks, the Lombards, the Angles and 
the Saxons formed new States, (V century), in Spain, 
in the Gauls, in Italy and in Britain. 

They wrought a complete revolution in government^ 
laws, manners, literature and arts. The Franks ended by 
obtaining the preponderance ; then began the secular 
power of the popes. 

The Arabs, under their legislator, Mahorjiet, embraced 
a new religion which, with their empire, extended from 
Asia into Africa and from Africa into Spain. France 
herself, being threatened, was saved from the dominion 



78 FOURTH PART. 

of the Moorji by C/tarlcs Mar id, whose grandson, Charle-I 
magne, was the great man of his age; he renewed the I 
Empire of the IVesf., (800). 

But, at the death of Charlemagne, (814), there were j 
formed from the ruins of that empire new kingdomf^ j 
which arc the cradles of some of those of the present day. i 

Other States were established by the Normans, the Rus- \ 
sians and the Hungarians. The feudal system or the power 
of the seigneurs soon extended itself over the whole of 
Europe ; royal authority was etTaced, the vassals ruled, 
anarchy was the consequence of this kind of govern- 
ment, which would have destroyed the monarchies, but 
for the usage, which could not be extinguished, of render- 
ing faith and homage to the king. Chivalry came, in 
some sort, to repress the injustice of the great, for the 
enthusiasm of honor animated some of the feudal nobility. 

Another power, as injurious as that of the seigneurs, 
since it was greatly abused, was that of the popes, who, 
after Gregory VII, formed the ambitious project of ren- 
dering themselves sovereigns of the woi'ld ; their q»,arrels 
with the German empire troubled Europe during centu- 
ries. 

f The crusades, from the XI to the XIII century, had a 
powerful influence upon the state of the European na- 
tions ; they developed intelligence, concentrated power in 
the hands of the kinor and diminished that of the orandees. 

The establishment of communes, wliich was one of their 
consequences, caused ideas of liberty to spring up. Italy 
was covered with republics ; the kingdoms of the Tico 
Sicilies and of Portugal were founded ; the great charter 
was given in England; the power of the pontiffs dimin- 
ished; Switzerland was detached from Germany; and, 
that the revolution might be the more complete, three 
great inventions hastened the progress of industry, the 
arts and literature, and came to influence the faculties of 
man and his political condition ; these are : 



GENERAL II 1ST ail Y, 79 

1. That of gU!ij)Oicdcy, (XIV century), which cljangod 
the art of war ; 

2. That of pr'ud'mg, which extended men's ideas by 
establishing comiiumications between all the nations of 
the eaith ; 

3. That uf the compass, which permitted navigators to 
venture then^selves upon the seas, and to which we owe 
the discovery of many nev*^ countries. An important 
event occurred to terminate the history of the middle age ; 
titat is the taJiing of Constantmople by the Asiatic barba- 
rians, the Ttf/'A:.9,1iaving at their head Mahomet II (lb3o.) 

Motlerii Ilesfory. 

The bcilesdettrcs now began to flourish in Italy, in 
France and in England. A Genoese, Chr into i> liar CvhiinLus, 
discovered America (1-192.) Vasco dc GiUiia, a Portugmse 
navigator, doubled the Cape of Good Hope and opened a 
route to the Indies. A religious reform, eflected by a 
German monk named Luther, extended itself to all the 
countries of the world ; it was of im.mense a<lvantage to 
the temporal and spiritual interests of mankiiid, yet, hij 
the hloodtj wars, of which it became the occasion, threat- 
ened to replunge Europe into barbarism. 

The pccicc of Westphalia, in 1648, caused these reli- 
gious quarrels to cease and became the basis of the politi- 
cal system of Europe. It was then also that tlie house 
of Austria was humbled, which, since Charles Fifth, had 
aspired to universal monarch ii. 

France, under Louis XIV succeeded to the colossal 
power of Austria ; the peace of Utrecht set bounds to her 
ambition (1713). Europe meanwhile v/as not delivered 
from the fear of an universal dominion; new powers, in- 
fluential and formidable, arose. Frederick II, in Prus- 
sia, and Peter the Great, in Russia, deranged all the com- 
binations of the treatij of ^Vestphalia ; tlie one, in the 
seven years' ?r£7;-,*threatned Germany; the other, at Vid- 



80 FOURTH PART. 

tawa, humbled Sweden ; their successors inherited their 
policy, and made Foland, whose vicious constitution 
caused its ruin, to disappear from the map of nations. 

But a revolution more terrible than those of England 
under Charles I and William III came to trouble the 
civilized world of Europe; the most ancient family of 
Europe fell; a king died upon the scaffold; France, 
which had been during fourteen centuries a monarchy, 
erected herself into a republic, and soon a conquering 
soldier placed upon his head the crown of the descendents of 
Henry IV^'^- A military power grew into immense mag- 
nitude, and renewed the empire of Charlemagne. France, 
under Napoleon, gave law to Europe. But speedily dis- 
aster succeeded his brilliant victories, and the humbled 
European sovereigns formed a coalition against him; 
France was vanquished, her chief was overthrown, the 
Bouibons reascended the throne, and the treaty of West- 
2)halia still serves as a basis to the political system of Eu- 
rope. New revolutions, in France, Belgium, Poland, Italy, 
Portugal, and Spain, occurred in 1830, 1831, 1833, and 
1834, to agitate all Europe, whose wishes and wants were 
for the general peace (1841). 

The same enlarging views of human rights and social 
organization which led to these convulsions in the old 
world, induced the British colonies in North America to 
throw off the yoke of dependence on the mother country, 
and thus commence, under most favorable auspices, that 
experiment oi pop>ular goveryiment which hitherto has been 
so successful, and in which the dearest interests of hu- 
manity are involved. 



MODEL OF QUESTIONS OX THE BRIEF REVIEW. 

I shall give for example only two questions. The pupil 
says at the commencement : " Mankind, whom God had 



GENERAL HISTORY. 81 

created immortal, incurred his vengeance." Let him be 
asked : 

1. How did mankind, <Sfc. incur his vengeance? 

' Further on, the pupil says, speaking of the Phenicians : 
" They extended their relations into the greater part of 
the ancient world." 

2. Into what countries did the Phenicians extend their 
relations ? 

As in the historic narrations, the places, the great men, 
and the events, should be insisted on. 

This brief review should be repeated upon a large map 
of the world. 



4 ®#@ «: 



CHRONOLOGY. 

Principal events of Aiicieut History. 

To he analyzed by means of the author s Elements of 
General History * 

PRIMITIVE TIMES. 

Centuries. Before J. C. 

L. 4963. Creation of the world. 

XLIX. 4833. Death of Abel. 

XXIV. 3308. Universal deluge. 
XXX. 2907. Dispersion of mankind. 

MYTHOLOGICAL TIMES. 

XXV. ■ 2567. Foundationof the kingdom of Egypt. 
XXin. 2296. Vocation of Abraham. 

* If that work be not accessible to the pupil, the analysis may be omittecl, 
or the details of the event may be obtained from any history within hia 
reach. It is taken for granted tViat the teacher will be able to determine 
as to the accuracy of the leading details of such an analysis, let them have 
been procund by the pupil from whatever source they may. 

4* 



82 FOURTH PART. 

FOUNDATION OF EMPIRES. 
Centuries. Before J. C. 

2089. Foundation of Sicyon. 
2040. Keign of Maoris in Egypt. 
2075. End of the Hyksos in Egypt. 

2090. History of Joseph. 



XXI. 



HEROIC TIMES. 

Foundation of tlie most ancient cities of Greece. 

yyjj < 1G45. Departure from Egypt; law given, 

( 1645. Sesostris in Egypt. 

XVI. 1582. Foundation of Athens. 

XIV. 1350. Voyage of the Argonauts to Colchis. 

POETIC TIMES. 

Birth of the Fine Arts in Greece. 
XIII. 1280. War of Troy. 

Royalty among the Hebrews. 

XI \ 1080. Saul, king of the Hebrews. 

\ 1001. Reign of Solomon. 
X. 991. Dedication of the temple. 

HISTORIC TIMES. 

Legislative j>criod. 

IX. \ ^^^- J'-'egislation of Lycurgus. 

\ 8G0. Foundation of Carthage. 



Origin of the Roman 



power. 



VIII \ '^^^' ^^i"st Olympiad. 

( 753. Foundation of Rome. 



GENERAL IJiSTOilV. 83 

CapLivltij of the Ilchrcws. 
Ccnluries. Befuifc J. C. 

f 684. Second war of MesBeiiia. 

\ 667. Combat of the Horatii and the Cu- 

VII < , ''^'"- 

j 606. Capture of Jerusalem by NebucliaJ- 
/ nezzar. 

\ 600. First expedition of the Gauls. 

Glory of the Persia/is. • 
i 594-. Solon at Athens. 
VI. I 536. Cyrus takes Babylon. 

' 525. Cambyscs possesses himself of Egypt. 

Military, political, and literary glory of Greece. 

( 490. Persian war. 
V. ^ 431. War of the Peloponncssus. 

( 401. Retreat of the Ten Thousand. 
Disnicmhcrment of the empire of Alexander. 

390. Siege of Eome by the Gauls. 

3G3. Death of Epaminondas, conqueror at 

Leuctrse and JNIantinea. 
335. Conquests of Alexander. 

Rivalry of Rome and Carthage. 
264. Punic AVars. 
213. Rivalry of Hannibal and Scipio. 

Civil rears of Rome, 
i 149. Subjugation of Greece. 
( 146. Destruction of Carthage. 

Conquests of Julius Ccesar. 
90. War against Mithridates. 
89. Rivalry of Marius and Syila. 
58. Conquest of the Gauls by Caesax. 
31. Battle of Actium. 
29. Octavlus, emperor. 



IV 



III. 



81 FOURTH PART. 

AFTER THE VULGAR ERA. 
Roman dominion over the k?ioivn world. 

Centuries. Afler J. C. 

I. Reign of the twelve Caesars. 
Roman civilization under the Antonines. 

II. lOG. Conquests of Trajan. 

Military Anarchy. 

III. 269. Defeat of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. 

Division of the Roitian empire. 

IV. 328. Translation of the seat of empire to 

Byzantium. 

Fall of the Roinan empire of the West. — Invasions. 



V. 



. 406. Invasion of barbarous nations. 

I 418. The Franks in Gaul. 

I 476. Fall of the Roman empire of the West' 

• 476. Establishment of modern States. 

HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGE. 

Political chaos. 

507. Invasion of the Visigoths into Spain. 
VI. ^ 534. Conquests of Belisarius. 

590. Pontificate of Gregory the Great. 

Military glory of the Arabs. 



VII. 



013. Rivalry of Fredegonda and Brunehaat. 
622. Heffira of Mahomet. 



Glory of the Frank monarchy. 
^ 712. The Moors in Spain. 

VIII < ^^'^' ^^^^<^^T ^^ Charles Martel over the 

J Saracens. 

^ 768. Reign of Charlemagne. 



XL 



GENERAL HISTORY. 85 

Feudalism. 



Centuries. After J. C. 



,-«- C 802. Charlemagne, emperor of the West. 

( 877. Feudal system under Charles the Bald. 

Ignoronce. — French Monarchy. 

911. Conrad I, emperor of Germany. 

912. The Normans in France. 
962. Conquest of Italy by Otho the Great, 
987. Introduction of Christianity into Rus- 
sia, by Waldimir. 

987. Accession of Hugh Capet. 



Crusades. 

1072. Pontificate of Gregory VII. 
1095. Commencement of the Crusades. 

Comniunes. 



^ 1108. Establishment of communes in 
\ France, by Louis VI. 

^ 1139. Foundation of the kingdom of For- 
V. tugal by Alphonso Henriquez. 

Extc7ision of Roy alt if. 

C 1214. Battle of Bouvines. 
XIII. \ 1215. Conquests of Genghis Khan. 
I 1282. Sicilian Vespers. 

Discoveries. — Progress of tlie human mind. 

1302. Discovery of the compass and of 
"KIV. { gunpowder. 

1306. Helvetic confederacy ; William Tell. 



86 FOURTH PART. 

Invention, of Print cng. 

Centuries. After J. C. 

1436. Invention of printing. 

1452. War of the Two Roses. 

1453. Capture of Constantinople by the 
Turks, 



XV. 



MODERN HISTORY. 

Discover ij of America. 

1474. Union of the kingdoms of Castille 
and Arragon, 
XV. ^ 1492. Discovery of America by Christo- 

pher Columbus. 
1492. Moors driven from Spain. 

Wars of Religion. 

1513. Pontificate of Leo X. 
1517. Reform of Luther and Zwangle. 
XVL ^ 1519. Rivalry of Francis 1 and Charles 
Fifth. 
1571. Victory of Lepanto over the Turks. 

Political, militarij and literary influence of France under 
Richelieu and Louis XIV. 

1618. Thirty years' war. 

1640. Revolution of Portugal. 

1643. Louis XIV. 

yyrr J 1647. Masaniello at Naples. 

164S. Peace of WestphaUa. 

1649. Execution of Charles I. 

16S8. Rebellion of the Low Countries. 

1695. Peter the Great. 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



8V 



xviir. 



After J. C. 

1700. 
1740. 
•1754. 
1772. 
1783. 

17S9. 
1792. 
1793. 
1796. 

1798. 
1798. 



Revolutions. 

Succession of Spain. 
Succession of Austria. 
Seven years' war. 
Revolution of Sweden. 
Independence of the United States 

acknowledged. 
French revolution. 
French republic. 
Death of Louis XV[. 
Campaign in Italy. 
Expedition into Egypt. 
Revolution of Saint Domingo. 



POLITICAL AND MILITARY GLORY OF 
UNDER NAPOLEON. 



FRANCE 



Continuation of Rcvolal'wns. 

1804. Napoleon, emperor. 
1808. Dethronement of the Spanish Bour- 
bons. 

1814. Restoration of the Bourbons. 

1815. Battle of Waterloo. 
1828. War between the Russians and 

Turks. 
XIX. \ 1830. Revolution of Paris. 

1830. Revolution of Belgium. 

1830. Revolution of Poland. 

1831. Insurrection of the States of the 
Church. 

1833. Revolution of Portugal. 

1833. Revolution of Switzerland. 

1834. War of the Spanish succession. 



88 



FOURTH PART. 



GREAT MEN. 



Ancient History. 



Pcrsc 


ins who gave thoir name lo thei 


r century. 


Centi 


iries before J. C. 


Remarkable Persons. 


50. 


Adam. 


Cain, Abel. 


49. 


Seth. 


Cain, Abel. 


34. 


Noah. 


Shem, Ham, Japhet. 


30. 


Peleg (dispersion.) 


Fo-hi. 


25. 


Menes. 




23. 


Abraham. 


Lot, Chedarlaomer. 


22. 


Egyaleus. 




21. 


Joseph. 


Uranus, Isaac, Esau, Maeris. 


20. 


Semiramis. 


Ninus, Inachus, Saturnus. 


19. 


Jupiter. 


Apis, Isis. 


18. 


Ogyges. 


Phoroneus. 


17. 


Moses and Agenor. 


Amenophis, Prometheus, Se- 
sostris. 


16. 


Cecrops. 


Cadmus, Deucalion, Danaus. 


15. 


Bacchus and Ceres. 


Minos. 


14. 


Hercules. 


Tantalus, Jason, Perseus, 
^dipus. 


13. 


Agamemnon and 


Theseus, Achilles, Hector, 




Priam. 


Ulysses, ^neas. 


12. 


Samuel. 


Codrus, the Heraclides. 


11. 


Solomon. 


Saul, David. 


10. 


Homer. 


Jeroboam, Shishhak, Reho- 
boam. 


9. 


Dido. 


Carsanus, Athalia, Lycurgus. 


8. 


Romulus. 


Numa, Nabonassar, Tobias. 


7, 


. Nebuchadnezzar. 


Thales, Psammetichus, Judith, 
Daniel, the Horatii. 


6. 


Cyrus. 


Solon, Pisistratus, Pythagoras, 
Tarquin the Proud, Brutus, 
Confucius,Crcesus,Cambyses, 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



89 



Persons who gave their names to their centuries. 
Centuries before J. C. 

5. Pericles. 



4. Alexander. 



3. Hannibal. 



2. The Gracchi. 



1. Julius Caesar. 



CENTURIES 

1. Augustus. 



2. Antoninus, Marcus 

Aurellus. 

3. Diocletian. 

4. Constantine. 

5. Attila Clevis. 



6. Justinian. 



Kemarkable Persons. 

Coriolanus, Miltiades, Leoni- 
das,Themistocles,Alcibiades, 
Socrates, Xenophon, Plato, 
Herodotus, Thasybulus. 

Aristotle, Epaminondas, Camil- 
lus, Phocion, Demosthe- 
nes, Brennus. 

Publius Scipio, Pyrrhus, Pto- 
lemy Philadelphus, Aratus, 
■ Regulus, Archimedes, Agis, 
Philopoemon. 

Antiochus, Epiphanes, Paulus 
Emilius, Scipio ^Emilianus, 
Zugurtha. 

Mithridates, Scipio -iEmilianus, 
Marius, Sylla, Pompoy, Cat- 
aline, Sertorius, Spartacus, 
Cicero, Cleopatra. 

AFTER JESUS CHRIST. 

Maecenas, Tiberius, Sejanus, 
Germanicus, Nero, Vespasi- 
an, Titus. 

Trojan, Adrian. 

Zenobia, Aurelian, Artaxerxes. 
Julian the Apostate, Theodo- 

sius the Great, Ossian. 
Odoacer, Merovaeus, Theodo- 

ric, Syagrius. 

MIDDLE AGE. 

Belisarius, Narses, Alboin, Gre- 
gory the Great, Chosroes the 
Great, Fredegonda, Brunehaut. 



90 



FOURTH PART. 



Tersons who gavo lliylr uauics to lluiir centuries. 
Ceulurt«6 belbio J. V. 



7. Mahomet. 

8. Charlemagne. 

9. Alfred the Great, 

Almamoun. 

10. Abdheraman III. 

Otho the Great. 

11. William the Con- 

queror. 



liijiiKiikaLlc Persons. 

Omar, Ali, Heraclius, Ebroin, 
Pepiti d'Heristal. 

Ciiarles Martel,Haroun-al-Ras- 
chid, Irene, Zacbary,Witikind. 

Elides, Robert the strong, 
Rurick, Photius. 

Rollo, Wladimir, Hugh the 
White, Hugh Capet. 

Gregory VI f, Alexis, Comnen- 
iis, Canute the Great, Robert 
G uiscard, the Cid. 

12. Saladin, Philip Au- Richard Coeur de Lion, Alphon- 

gustus. zoHenriquez, Eric, Frederic, 

Barbarossa, the Abbe Suger, 
Thomas-a-Becket. 

13. Genghis-Khan, Ro- Othman, Saint Louis, Philip 

dolph of Hapsburg. the Fair, Charles of Anjou, 

Boniface the VIII. 

14-. Tamerlane, Edward Margaret of VValdemar, Baja- 

III. zet, William Tell, Rienzi, 

the Black Prince, Duguesclin. 



MODERN HISTORY. 



15. Mahomet II, Christo- 
pher Columbus. 



16. Charles V, Leo X; 
Francis I. 



Henry V, Ferdinand V the Ca- 
tholic, Gonsalvo de Cordova, 
Joan of Arc,Charles the Rash, 
Louis XI, Albuquerque. 

Henry VIII, Elizabeth, Lu- 
ther, Gustavus Vasa, Catha- 
rine de Medicis, Emmanuel 
the Great, Gama, Mafrellan. 
Bayard, Pizarro, Cortez, Las 
Casas, the duke of Alba, 
Doria, Spinola, Machiavel. 



GENERAL HISTOIIY. 91 

Persons who gave their names to their centuries. 

Centuries before J.C. Remarkable FerEons. 

17. Louis XI \^. Henry IV, Cromwell, Chris- 

tine, Richelieu, Walstei!), 
Mazarin, Conde, Turetme, 
Marlborough, Eugene, Vil- 
lars, Vendome, William Uf. 

18. Peter the Great, Frederic II, Maria Theresa, 

Charles XII. Catharine II, Bonaparte, 

George HI, Cook, Wash- 
ington, Lafayette, Sou war- 
row, Robespierre, Wirabeau, 
Marat. 

19. Napoleon. Alexander I, Mahmouth II, Kle- 

ber, Bernadotte, Canning. 



OBSERVATIONS. 



This secular list of great men furnishes one of the most 
useful exercises of the present work. It is necessary 
that the pupil be in perfect possession of it. 

MODEL OF QUESTIONS ON THE CHRONOLOGY. 

Five questions will suffice to make known the course 
which should be pursued in inteiTogating the pupil : 

1. In what century did Hannibal live ? 

2. How many centuries transpired from Hannibal to 
Louis XIV ] 

3. In what history do you find Hannibal ; on what oc- 
casion is he spoken of? 

4. Who is the most celebrated character in each cen- 
tury ] 

5. By what thought can you connect the persons of 
such and such a century? 



FIFTH FART. 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 



flgyptians. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 

From tlie origin of the Egyptian monarchy to the con- 
quest of that country by Cambyses (525). — Religion — 
Governments — Arts and monuments. 

It is supposed that the posterity of Ham and that of his 
son Misraim peopled Egypt. 

The Ethiopians, already advanced in civilization, estab- 
lished colonies there, and founded the nomcs or States of 
Thches, Elephantine, Heraclea, Thin or This, in Upper 
Egypt; and in the lower, called also middle Egypt, the 
names of a former Memphis, Mendes, Thanis, &c. 

The dynasty of Thebes was then the most ancient and 
powerful one. 

The Ethiopians composed the two superior castes, the 
priests and the warriors. 

The ancient inhabitants composed the two inferior 
castes. 



Who are supposed to have peopled Egypt ? 
Wliat nation afterward established colonies there ? 
Which was the most ancient and powerful dynasty of 
Egypt. 

Who composed the two superior castes ? 
Who the two inferior ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 93 

The beginnings of the history of Egypt are obscured by 
a multitude of fables. At first the priests reigned in the 
name of the divinities. To this theocraiic government 
monarchy succeeded. 

The first king conceraing whom we have historical no- 
tices is Menes, who drained the lower part of Egypt, and 
made it habitable. He is generally regarded as the pro- 
pagator of Idolatry, on account of the worship which he 
established at Memphis in honor of Vulcan or fire, and 
afterwards of the sun, the earth and the stars. 

After him fifty kings of his race reigned, whose very 
names are unknown ; savage hordes, who doubtless came 
from Arabia, afterward governed Egypt, during more 
than five centuries, under the name of the Shej)herd Kings 
or hylisos. These strangers were finally expelled from 
the country. The Egyptians then obeyed monarchs of 
their own nation. We notice in the number of these 
princes T/iouhfiosis, ^rst king of the twelfth dynasty, who 
united Egypt under the same dominion, after having 
driven out the Arabs : Joseph was his minister ; the infa- 
mous Busiris, who sacrificed all the strangers that came 
into his dominions ; the powerful Osymandias, celebrated 



By what are the beginnings of Egyptian history' obscured ? 

Who first reigned in Egypt ? 

In whose name did they reign? 

What form of government succeeded the theocracy? 

Who was the first king of whom we have historical notices ? 

What is reported of him ? 

Who succeeded him ? 

By whom was Egypt afterward governed ? 

Whence did they come ? 

How long did (hey sway it ? — Under what title ? 

Why did llieir nscendancy terminate ? 

Whom did the Egyptians then obey ? 

Who was Thoutinosis ? — Wliat did he perform ? 

Who was his minister ? 

What was the character of Busiris ? 

What did he do? 



94« FIFTH PART. 

by Ills marvellous monuments, and who founded tlie first 
library, to which he gave the name of pharmacia, or 
remedy for the soul ; a female named Nidoris, celebrated 
for her tomb and her library, and as cruel as the greater 
pail of her predecessors ; she built, it is said, the third 
pyramid; Mccris, who rendered himself as useful as any 
of his countrymen by digging the famous lake which bears 
bis name; Amoiophis, who caused the Hebrews to depart 
out of Egypt, after having overwhelmed them with pain- 
ful labors. He was, they say, the father of Sesostris, the 
hero of Egypt, of whom he weighed to make a conqueror. 
Accordingly he ordered all the children w^io were born 
on the same day as that prince to be brought up with the 
same careful and rigorous discipline, in order to accustom 
them, as v/ell as their young master, to a hard and labo- 
rious life. 

Scwstris, (1645,) with a prodigious army, invaded Asia 
by sea and land, even beyond the Ganges, took or pil- 
laged many cities, and penetrated into Europe itself He 
brought back into his dominions imm.ense wealth and 
dragged in his train a great number of prisoners. After 
this senseless and destructive expedition, which lasted 
nine years, he began to become a wise and beneficent 
prince. He dismissed his soldiers and rewar.ded them, 
undertook immense labors, fortified his frontiers by a very 



For what is Osymandias celebrated ? 
What name did he give bis library ? 
For wbat is Nictoris celebrated? 
What did she build? 

How did Mncris render himself useful to his countrymen? 
What is said of Araenophis ? — Wliose father was he? 
What did he wish to make of Sesostris ? 
What order did he give in reference to the children who 
were born on the same day with his son ? 

What are the warlike achievements of Sesostris? 
What is the character of his expedition into Asia? 
Did he afterward abandon his passion for war ? 
AVhat useful works did he undertake ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 05 

long wall; caused to be dug, from Mempliis to the sea, a 
great number of canals, which served, on the one hand, to 
render the country less accessible to enemies, and on the 
other, to facilitate commerce. In his old age Scsostris be- 
came blind and committed suicide. 

The successors of Sesostris are but little remarkabfe. 
They built those great pyramids of which the remains arc 
yet admired, pompous monuments raised by their pride, 
yet which did not serve even to immortalize their names. 

Egypt afterward fell into great disorder by a new in- 
vasion of the Ethiopians ; soon after that invasion it was 
divided between twelve kings. 

Paammeticus, one of them, (from (j5Q to G17,) vanquished 
the others, and remained sole master of the kingdom ; he 
extended the maratime commerce which the Egyptians 
carried on v/ilh r)ther nations, especially with Greece. 

It is only in his reign that the history of Egypt begins 
to possess more certainty. 

NecJutG, his son, (from Gi7 to GOl,) who extended navi- 
gation still farther, caused, it is said, the tour of Africa to 
be undertaken by Phcnician navigators, who started from 
the Red sea and returned by the Mediterranean. 

Psammis reigned ingloriously, and Aj>ries (594), after 
some unfoitunate combats against the Lydians, Vv'as at first 
expelled and afterwards strangled in his palace of *SV;2,y 
by his own subjects. 

Amas'is, of base extraction, mounted the throne, (from 
570 to 520) ; he made himself popular, and caused his in- 



What became of him in his old age ? 

Were the successors of Sesostris remarkable ? 

What structures did they huild ? 

Into what condition did Kffvpt afterward fail ? 

What was the cause of it ? 

What happened soon after the Ethiopian invasions ? 

What is saidof Psammeticns ? — Of Nechao? — Of Psamrais? 

Of A pries ?— Of Amasis ? 



96 FIFTH PART. 

ferior birth to be forgotten, by the wisdom of his laws and 
the excellence of his administration. It was he who 
obliged the private in lividuals, in every city, to inscribe 
their names with the magistrate, and to declare the occu- 
pation by which they lived. He maintained relations 
with the Greeks, and received with bounty the legislator 
Solon and the philosopher Pythagoras, who owed much 
of their wisdom to his laws. 

Under Psammcnitus, the son of Amasis and his suc- 
cessorj the cruel Cavibyscs, king of Persia, invaded Egypt, 
slew the king and the princijial citizens, exercised every 
where an equal fury, and gave the finishing stroke to it 
by the sacreligious murder of the ox Apis. Egypt then 
became a province of the Persian monarchy [525). 

RELIGION. 

The Egyptians worshipped the sun, the moon, the ele- 
ments, animals, nature, whose productions they personi- 
fied under the names of Osiris, his, Typlion and Nejyhthys. 
The ox Apis was the principal divinity of this people ; the 
other sacred anim.als were the cat, the dog, the ichneumon, 
(called also the rat of Pharaoh,) the wolf, the crocodile, the 
falcon and the ibis. They believed still in the existence 
of one supreme God. Hence that celebrated inscription 
of the temple of Sais : lam all that which has been, is, and 
will be, and no mortal has yet lifted the veil that covers me. 

GOVERNMENT. 

The government of this kingdom was always monar- 
chical, mixed with theocracy; but certain ancient laws 



What is said of Psammcnitus? 
What is said of ihe religion of Egypt 
Of its government? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 97 

formed a sort of counterpoise to the despotism of the 
sovereigns ; they were solemnly judged after their death, 
and received the honors of sepulture or were deprived 
of them, accordingly as they had lived and reigned well 
or ill. 



JUSTICE. 

The most important causes were tried by a tribu- 
nal of thirty members, chosen in the three great cities ; 
Memphis, Thebes, and Heliopolis. Among the most 
remarkable laws, was one which forbid the son to take 
a different profession from that of his father; and another 
which punished with death every one who could not prove 
that he had honest means of subsistence. 

The Egyptians were acquainted with all the arts and 
sciences known in their day, devoted themselves to them, 
and carried some of them to a high degree of perfectioiu 
They were particularly good geometers and astronomers. 

Besides her famous pyramids, Egypt prided herself 
upon many monuments of the arts which posterity ad- 
mires. Fine statues, remarkable rather for their majesty 
than their grace, are still met with every where in that 
land. The Sphynx, the statue of Memnon, the hundred 
gates of Thebes, the lake Mseris, the temple of Denderah, 
and the grottos of Osus, are the j)nncipal of these gigan- 
tic monuments. 

The Egyptians taught the different branches of their 
science on the walls of temples and tombs, and on the 
numerous pillars called Hermes. They availed them- 
selves, for this end, of an emblematical kind of writing 



Of the administration of justice ? 
Of the state of the arts and sciences in Egypt ? 
Of her monuments ? 

Of the method of instruction in the sciences % 
5 



98 FIFTH PAEIT. 

called hicroghjphic ; besides this kind of wriiing, they 
were acquainted with two others : the c.p> sf olographic ■^wiX 
the alpliahct^c. 

MACEDOMAN DOMIMOX. 

After the conquest of Egypt by Camhyscs, many revolt.5 
broke out there. Amyrtcfiits o£ Sais, one of the kings whom 
the Egyptians had given themselves, drove the Persians 
from his kingdom, and reigned six years, always occupied 
with strengthening himself upon a throne shaken l)y so 
many concussions. Thus Egypt remained nearly tAvo 
centuries, sometimes as a subject, sometimes as a vassal 
of other powers, and was frequently in a state of rebellion 
against its oppressors. 

Alexander the Great (IV century), snatched it without 
difficulty from the Persians, made of it a Macedonian 
province, and seems to have entertained the design of 
establishing there the seat of his empire, by founding 
Alexandria, wliicli speedily becaii:ie the centre of an ex- 
tensive commerce. 

LACUDES. 

After the death of Alexander, Egypt became the por- 
tion of Ptolemy Soter, (that is to say, savior,) son of Lagus 
(the hare), to whom tlie Macedonian conqueror had left 
the government of it. The kingdom of Ptolemy compre- 
hended, besides Egypt properly speaking, many oth.er 
considerable countries of Africa and Asia which were in 
its vicinity. 

Alexandria^ by its advantageous position for commerce, 
became the capital of the new kingdom. 



What was the state of Egypt under Amyrtoeus? 
Under Alexander the Great ?— Under Ptolemy Soter? 
Wliat was the capital of the new kingdom ? 



HISTORICAL SIvETCHES. §9 

Vtolcmy Sotcr (323-284) attracted into Egypt many 
Phenicians, Jews and Greeks, and favored commerce in 
general ; accordingly, Alexandria very soon became one 
of the greatest and most opulent cities of the world. 

Ptolemy founded the most numerous and celebrated 
library of antiquity, composed of Greek books, and placed 
in a vast edifice called the Musminn, for the use of a 
society of learned men whom that king maintained. 

Pfolrmy Vhilqdcl'phus , (that is to say, icho loved his 
hrothcr, 284-246,) the son of Soler, continued these estab- 
lishments with success, but tarnished his glory by the 
murder of two of his brothers. It was under the reign 
of this prince that the Greek version of the sacred books 
of the Hebrews, known under the name of the Septuagint, 
or version of the Seventy, was made, by his order. 

Egypt was still as flourishing as it was strong under 
Ptolemy Energctcs, {hcncfartor, 246-221), the son and 
successor of Ptolemy Philadelphus. That king made 
himyelf master of Syiia and Cilicia, and subdued all the 
countries as far as Babylon. He had mairied his sister 
Berenice. That princess made a vov/ to consecrate her 
hair to Venus, if her husband should return from his ex- 
pedition. On the return of Ptolemy she fulfilled her 
vow ; and her hair liaving disappeared from the temple 
where it was suspended, the astronomer Canon reported 
that Jupiter had stolen it. 

After PtoJcmy Puilopalor, (who poisoned his father), 
the kingdom fell into the greatest confusion, through the 
vices and incapacity of its princes. 



Whom did Soter induce to settle in Egypt? 

What effect had t]ii>« ini migration on Alexandria ? 

What is said of the Ptolemsean library? 

What is said of riiiladelphus?— £)f Euergetes? 

Of Berenice and Conon ? 

What king of Egypt poisoned his father ? 

Into what condition did Egypt fall after his death ? 



100 FIFTH PART. 

The Romans mingled themselves with the aflfairs of 
Egypt in order to derive advantage from them. Julius 
Caesar put an end to the divisions which reigned in the 
royal family, in favor of Cleopatra^ equally celebrated for 
her beauty and her intrigues. In the sequel, that prin- 
cess having espoused Anthony, conceived the project of 
becoming queen of Rome ; but after the naval battle of 
Actiinn she killed herself in order to avoid being led in 
triumph, as a captive, in the train of Octavius. Then 
Egypt became a province of the Roman empire. 

During nearly seven centuries Egypt was successively 
in the power of the Roman empires of the west and the 
east. 

ItVas at the end of the VII century that the fanatic 
Omar^ one of the successors of Mahomet, the lawgiver of 
the Arabs, and who carried every where desolation and 
carnage, burnt the library of Alexandria and subdued 

Egypt. 

About the XII century (1171) the Turcomans drove 
out the califs, the successors of Omar, and were in their 
turn driven out by the Mamelukes, a kind of soldiery 
which they had in their pay. 

MODERN HISTORY. 

The dynasty of the Mamelukes, whose chief took the 
name of soudan or sultan, reigned until 1517. 



What nation then interfered with her affairs? 
What is said of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra ? 
Of Cleopatra and Anthony ? 

What became of Cleopatra after the battle of Actium ? 
What did Ejjypl then become ? 

How long did she continue under the Roman dominion? 
By whom was she next conquered and her famous library 
burnt? — Who drove out the califs 

By whom were the Turcomans expelled ? 
Until .when did the Mamelukes rule in Egypt ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 101 

In the XVI century (1517) Selim I, emperor of the 
Turks, possessed himself of Egypt and abolished the 
monarchy of the Mamelukes ; he thought to establish his 
authority there in a more certain manner by introducing 
a sort of aristocratic government, composed of twenty-four 
beys or chiefs of the Mamelukes, at the head of whom he 
placed a paclia (governor). 

The form of government introduced by Seliin /, an- 
swered the intentions of the Sultan sufficiently well dur- 
ing nearly two hundred years; but, towards the com- 
mencement of the XVIII century the bonds of it were 
relaxed and the pachas had only a shadow of power; the 
beys and the Mamelukes alone exercised an absolute em- 
pire, and unhappy Egypt, pillaged and devastated, lan- 
guished in the most dreadful slavery. 

In 1798 the French Repuhllc sent troops into Egypt 
under the command of Bonaparte ; the conquest which be 
made of it was brilliant and rapid. After a few combats 
the Mamelukes, dispersed and annihilated, left the go- 
vernment in the hands of those Europeans, who conducted 
themselves there like a civilized people. The French 
had gained over the Mamelukes the battle of the Pyra- 
mids (July 1^*-, 179S). At the end of about four years of 
unprecedented labors, undertaken by learned men, such 
as M. M. Monge, and Bertholet, Peyre, Monet and Me- 
chain, Denon, Arnolet and Champy, Delisle, Savigny, and 
Conte, the French, forced by the English, who had joined 
themselves to the Turks, evacuated Egypt (1801). 

The French general Kleber had been assassinated at 
Cairo by a young Syrian named Souley-Man (1800). 



What did Selim I, do there ? 

How did be seek to establish his auihodty ? 

How did his form of government succeed ? 

What took place in Egypt under the French Repviblic ? 

By whora and where was Kleber assassinated ? 



102 FIFTH PART. 

After the departure of the French from Egypt, and the 
fruitless attempts of the English (1807) to occupy that 
country, it became the theatre of a bloody anarchy. 

The Mamelukes and the pachas sent by the Porte dis- 
puted the power with each other ; but Mekemll All finally 
succeeded, by his address, as much as by his valor, in 
seizing the reins of authority there. 

Mehemit Alt, a pacha endowed with great qualities, 
thought that it was necessary, for the tranquility of Egypt, 
to rid himself of this turbulent and despotic soldiery of the 
Mamelukes. On the 1 ^- of March, ISli, he shut up in the 
castle of Cairo, under the pretence of a ceremony, the beys 
and Mamelukes, to the number of five hundred, and caused 
them to be pitilessly massacred. 

This terrible measure pacified Egypt, of which Me- 
hemit was appointed vice-roy by the Porte. He has 
wrought salutary reforms in all the branches of the admin- 
istration ; he receives Europeans very kindly, and has 
succeeded thus far in the bold attempt of rendering him- 
self independent of the Ottoman empire. 

ASSYRIANS. 

The Assyrians pretended to be the most ancient people 
on earth, and to occupy, by this title, the first place in pro- 
fane history. But in order to have a precise idea of that 
monarchy, it is expedient to divide it into two kingdoms, 
that of Babylon and that of Assyria, which were united 
in the sequel by Belus, who left at his death the throne to 
his son Ninus, the inheritor of his father's courage. That 
prince made many conquests, and built Nineveh, a cele- 

What followed the departure of the French ? 

How (lid Mehemit Ali rid himself of (he Mamelukes ? 

What is said of his subsequent career? 

What were the pretensions of tlie Assyrians to antiquity? 

Into what two kingdoms were the As^y^•ans divided ? 

What is said of Bel us ?— Of Ninus ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCIiES. 103 

brutfid city bituateJ on tlic eastern bank (»f the Tigris. 
After him Semirami.s, his wife, governc'l the Assyrians, 
and extended her empire even to Etliiopia and Lybia. 
To her is attributed tlie fouridation of Babylon, a superb 
city, wliose palaces and hanging gardens wore the admi- 
ration of ami equity. 

The successors of Semiramis are almost unknown until 
Sardan.ipalu? {"dCtd), a feeble prince, who was occupied 
solely with his own voluptu<»us pleasures. The name of 
this king is aj)propriated for characterizing those princes 
who seem to live for nothing but effeminate enjoyments. 

Belesis and Arbaces, officers of Sardanapalu.', put 
themselves at the head of the malcontents ; the king com- 
ujitted suicide to avoid falling into their hands, and thus 
ended the first Assyrian empire. On its ruins rose three 
kingdoms : first, that of the Mcdes ; pccond, that of the 
NinevitCf?; thiid, that of the Babylonians. 

SECOND ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 

Mkdes. — {See the Persiuns.) ^ 

NINEVITES. 

The kings of Nineveh retained the name o^ kings of As- 
£>,-/iU, and were the mo.st powerful. Among their con- 
quests, tliat of the kingdom of hrcjl, or Samaria is 
reckoned. 

T'iglath Pilczer had reigned at Nineveh a short time 
before the death of SardanapaUis. It was Salmanazar, 
his successor, who took S,/»iaria after a siege of three 
ye;irs, and who put an end to the kingdom of Israel (718). 

What is said of Semiramis ?—Sar<lanapa!us? — Eolosis and 
Arhncrs ? 

What was the c:k1 of Sardanapalas and ihe first A^^pyriau 
Empire < 

What ihrec kip.gdoms rose upon its ruins ? 

What IS said of the kings cf Nineveh ?— Of Tiglaih Pilezer ? 



lOl PfFTH PART. 

BABYLONIANS. 

Belesis, vvlio had united with Arbaces to dethrone Bar- 
danapahis retained. Babylonia for himself. His succes- 
sors are little known, and the list which is given of them 
deserves no confidence. Esar-Haddon, king of Assyria, 
invaded this kingdom and confounded it with that of As- 
syria, under the common name of the kingdom oi Baby- 
lon. He fuither added to his conquests Syria and a part 
of Palestine, detached from the Babylonian empire under 
the preceeding reign. 

Babylon seemed to bo born for commanding the whole 
eajth : her people were full of spirit and courage. The 
East had scarcely any better soldiers than the Chaldeans. 
Wishing however to place everything beneath their yoke, 
they became insupportable to the neighboring nations. 
With the kings of Media and Persia, a large part of 
the nations of the East united against them. Two entire 
nations subject to the dominion of the Babylonians, which 
had become odious, joined themselves, together with the 
principal lords, to Cyrus and the Medes. Babylon, which 
thought herself invincible, became captive to the Medes, 
whom she expected to subdue, and finally perished by 
her own pride. Thus the Medes, who had destroyed the 
first empire of the Assyrians, again destroyed the second. 
But in this latter instance, the valor and the great name 
of Cyrus secured to the Persians, his subjects, the glory 
of that conquest. 

HEBREWS. 

The history of the Hebrews ascends to the highest an- 
tiquity. After the deluge, the descendents o^ jYoak aban- 

Wliat part of the Assyrian Empire did Belesis retain? 
"What is said of his successors? — OfEsar Haddon ? 
Of the revolt of the Medes under Cyrus? 
What is said of the history of the Hebrews? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 105 

doned themselves to idolatry. God determined to pro- 
duce a people in the midst of whom the true worship 
should be preserved. Abraham was its progenitor. This 
patriarch at first inhabited Chaldea ; but he went to estab- 
lish himself, by the command of God, in the land of Ca- 
naan. He lived there as a stranger, as well as Isaac, his 
son, and Jacob, his grandson. This last was the father 
of twelve children, who became the chiefs of the twelve 
tribes. 

Joseph, one of the sons of Jacob, having been sold as a 
slave by his brethren, be^me prime-minister of the Fha- 
raoh of lower Egypt. He invited thither his father's 
family and established it in the land of Goshen. 

The posterity of Jacob dwelt in Egypt nearly two cen- 
turies, and so multiplied there that they gave umbrage to 
the Egyptians. Reduced to servitude by the latter, the 
Hebrews had groaned for a century under their tyranny, 
when God raised up Moses for their deliverance. 

Moses, after having signalized the power of God in his 
own person by many prodigies, delivered his brethren 
from their bondage, and led them out of Egypt and over 
the Red sea, which they passed with dry feet. They 
wandered, under his guidance, during forty years, in the 
deserts of ylr«^i<2, and received from him a complete code 
of laws, to which they never added. Moses died in sight 
of the land that God had promised to his people. 

Joshua, the successor of Moses, established the He- 
brcv.'s in the land of Canaan, after having caused the 
walls Q^ Jericho to fall down, and gained many victories. 



What is said of ihe descendents of Noali? — Of Abraham ? — 
Isaac and Jacob? — Josei)h? 

What bcfel the po-teiity of Jacob in Egypt ? 

What is said of Moses and of the Hebrews under his guid- 
ance ? 

What is said of Joshua ? 

6* 



106 FIFTH PART. 

The Israelites were afterward governed by the judges..; 
this government, tlic forms of which are but little known, 
.lasted three hundred years. The prophet Samuel was 
the last judge. 

He caused Saul to be nominated king, by the command 
of God. 

To that prince succeeded David, surnamed the Pro- 
phet-king, and to David, Solomon, his son, celebrated for 
his wisdom and for the temjjle which he built at Jcrasalcm. 

After the death of this prince the kingdom was divided. 
Te7b tribes revolted against Rehoboam, the son of Solo- 
mon, and acknowledged Jeroboam, under the title of the 
King of Israel ; the other kingdom took the name of the 
Kingdom of Judah. 

The Jdngdotn of Israel was destroyed by Salmanazar: 
king of Assyria, after a duration of 254 years. This 
prince reduced to captivity the ten tribes, and dispersed 
them through the different parts of Asia. 

The kingdom o^ JiidaJi^xXW subsisted 130 years; it was 
finally destroyed by Xchucliadnczzar II. That prince, 
for the last time, led into captivity at Babylon a part of 
the Jewish people, and in a second war got possession 
o^ Jerusalem. This captivity endured seventy years ; the 
Hebrews were delivered from it by Cyrus ; they then 
returned to Jerusalem and rebuilt the temple. 

They after this governed themselves by their own laws ; 
although subject to the Persians, the power was in the 
hands of the high priests. 



What is said of the Judges ?— Samuel ?— Saul /—David ? 
-Solomon ? — Wliat schism took place under Rehoboam ? 
What did Salmanazar do to tlic kingdom of [srael? 
What did Nobncliadnezzar do to that of Judah ? 
How long did tlie Jewish captivity continue ? 
Who released them from it ? 
What did tlicy do when released ? 
After their return hov/ were they governed ? 



HISTCIllCAL SKETCilKS. 107 

After Alexander ibc Great, they were by tarns 6ul>ject 
to the kings of .Egypt and to those of Syria. 

In the second contui*y before J. C. the AsfJionean or Ma- 
chahean princes took the title of king>5 of Judea. Hirca- 
niis II, being attacked by his brother, called the Romans 
to his assistance. 

Tompey, a Roman general, entered Judeo, and ren- 
dered the Jews tributaries of the republic, while he left 
to them their form of government. 

It was under the reign of Herod the Great that Jesu-^ 
Chriat was born, in tiie year -1903. The kingdom of 
Judea still existed for some time under the inHucnce of 
the Romans ; it was finally destroyed by Titus, (70 years 
after .T. C). The siege of Jerusalem, the capital, lasted 
seven montiis. The Jews revolted again under Adrian ; 
that emperor, after having made a frightful slaughter 
among them, dispersed them (IS.') years after J. C). They 
have not since formed a national body, and are scattered 
over the surface of the globe. 

PIIKNICIANS. 

In the neighborhood of the Israelites, along tlse Medi- 
terranean, lived the Phenicians or Canaanites, a nation 
equally remarkable in history. Navigation and a very 
extended commerce gave them early, and for a longtime, 
the superiority over other nations ; they cultivated many 
arts with success, were versed In the sciences, and it was 



What was iheir poliiical slate after Aloxandt^r ? 

In ilic Rccoad crnfury before Christ ? 

What is said of Ilircanus II ? 

Wliat did Pompey do to tlic Jews? 

What remarkable birth under Herod tl)e Great? 

What befel the Jews under Tltws ? — Under Adrian I 

What has been heir condition since? 

WJiere were the Phenicians located ? 

FcT what were i. oy remarkable ? 



108 FIFTH PART. 

from them, according to all appearances, lliat the art of 
writing descended to us. 

Their commerce was already flourishing in the time 
of Jacob ; their manufactures of glass and purple are 
anterior lo Moses ; and Tyre presented, at the period of 
the foundation of Rome, the appearance of our great 
commercial cities. 

The Phenicians built a palace for Solomon; as naviga- 
tf)rs and merchants, they made a great number of dis- 
coveries, of which vestiges are found in the narratives of 
Moses, Iloriier and the Argonautlc hards. This people 
planted among the savages of Europe the first germs of 
the Asiatic sciences, and the primitive forms of those 
letters which we trace at the present day, are due to its 
inventive genius. 

y The Phenicians, situated between the Mediterranean 
and mount Libanus, inhabited a narrow strip of land 
which makes at present a part of Sourie ; they were the 
remains of the Canaanitish tribes which the Hebrews 
had not driven out. Isolated upon a barren soil, the 
Phenicians travelled to a great distance in search of the 
resources Vv'hich their native land refused them. 

Commerce soon procured for them immense wealth ; 
they multiplied their entrepots in the islands of Cyprus 
and Rhodes, in Greece, Sicily and Sardinia. They dis- 
covered Spain and built Cadiz. At the time when Hero- 
dotus wrote, their vessels went in search of tin beyond 
Great Britain, and of precious wood to North Frisia and 



What useful art have we derived from ihem ? 

What was the anrient state of commerce ?.vA the arts among 
them ? — What did they do towards early civilization? 

Where was their primitive seat ? 
^ From what tribes did fhey originate ? 

Did they migrate far from ilieir own country ? 

How did they increase their v/ealth ? 

Into what countries did they extend iheir commerce? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 109 

the north of Germany; their establishments extended 
over the whole western coast of Africa, and Carthage 
became the most powerful of their colonies. 

The increase of the new empires of Assyria and Baby- 
lon presented a barrier to the maritime monopoly of which 
the Phenicians had possessed themselves. Salmanazar 
and Nebuchadnezzar prepared the way for their decline. 
Ochus, the king of Persia, ruined Sidon ; and at a later 
period Alexander ruined Tyre, which was rebuilt, but 
which never recovered its maritime preponderance ; 
finally Antigonus, one of Alexander's generals, reduced 
her to servitude, and the commerce of that city was ex- 
tinguished with its liberty. 

GREEKS IN GENERAL. 

The Greeks called themselves autocthoncs ;* a great 
number of historians make them come from Pkenicia and 
Egypt. These two traditions may be reconciled by the 
Jiypothesis of a primitive population of autocthoncs, col- 
lected and civilized by foreign colonies. The most famous 
were those of Inachus at Argos, of Cccrops at Athens, and 
of Cadmus at Thehcs. 

A single kingdom existed before them ; it was that of 
Slcyon ; they founded new ones and created laws. 



Which was the most powerful of iheir colonies? 

What circumstanceiiilcrfcred with their maritime monopoly ? 

What monarclis prepared the way for their decline ? 

By whom were Sidon and Tyre respectively ruined ? 

\V ho finally reduced Tyre to servitude ? 

What did the Greeks call themselves ? 

From what nations arc they said to have been derived? 

How may you reconcile the traditions as to their origin? 

From what colonies were they chiefly descended ? 

What kingdom existed before their arrival ? 

* AutoctliOncs, persons boin upon the soil where lluy live. 



110 FIFTH FART. 

It is to this epoch and the fallowing oue that the ages 
called heroic belong. Their history is found environed 
with darkness and fable ; still certain important facts pre- 
sent themselves : at the head of these ranks the establish- 
ment of the four kingdoms of Sicijon, Athens, Jlrgos, and 
Thebes, the deluges of Ogyges and Deucalion, the instUii- 
tlon of the Olympic games, the expedition of the Argonauts, 
and l\iQ fa?nous icar of Troy. 

Here the heroic ages end, and events become more 
certain. The Ilcraclidcs possess themselves of the Pelo- 
ponessus ; the kingdom of Sicyon terminates; numerous 
^colonies people the islands of the >l^gean sea, and the 
fihores of Asia ; Homer publishes his poems ; Lycurgus 
gives laws to Sparta ; Corinth creates the Prytancs, Laee- 
dcemon the Ephori ; Mcssenia maintains two wars against 
Sparta; finally Athens requests laws from Solon. The 
VI century and the two following are the most splendid 
and prolific of Grecian history ; the Persian wars raised 
Greece to the highest point of glory and prosperity ; elo- 
quence and the arts flourished at the same time ; but luxury 
and effeminacy came in their train. Tlie Pcloponcssian war 
weakened the Greeks by means of each other; meanvvliile 
Kpamiriondas, Thrasyhalus, Xenophon and Agesilaus, sig- 
nalized themselves by prodigies of genius and valor; but 
the gold of Philip, and ere long the sword of Alexander, 
repressed the independence of Greece ; the Aclucan league 
caused her to revive for an instant ; but finally the Rimiana 
imposed their yoke upon her. Greece became a Roman 

What is said of their early history ? 

What important facLs present themselves diuiiifr that r.r- 
riod ? 

What memorable events follow ilie close of (he heroic ages? 

What events distinguish the VI, VII and VIII centuries of 
Grecian history ? 

What Greeks distinguished tljemselves durinp^ this period ? 

By what was Grecian independence impaired 

Ey what resuscitated for r. time ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCIil^S. Ill 

province, and the Greeks had no other superiority than 
that of eloquence and the arts. 

ATHENIANS. 

Tiie Athenians called themselves aatoctlwucs y they 
were doubtless formed from a mixture of the Ptlusgi, 
(regarded as the oldest inhabitants of Greece,) with the 
children o^ Ilellcn, the lonians, who, driven from Achaia, 
took refuge in Attica, and v/ere incorporated with the four 
tribes then existing there, and finally with the colony, 
which is thought to have been Egyptian, conducted 
thither by Cecrojis. 

Among the most celebrated kings after CecrGjJs, arc : 
Theseus , who is regarded as the founder of the Athenian 
Btate, because he united under the same government the 
several districts which surrounded the city, and which 
were previously independent ; Mencsthcus, who perished 
at the siege of Troy ; Codrus, who, it is said, voluntarily 
devoted liimself to save his country. 

After the death of Codrus the monarchy was abolished, 
and the state was governed by perpetual and hereditary 
archons ; they were chosen in the family of Codrus, and 
had all the authority of kings, but they were liable to 
render an account. The first perpetual archon was Mc- 
don, the son of Codrus; the last, Alcmccon. 

In the VIII century, the time of the arcormlup was re- 
duced to ten years, while it was preserved in the family 
of Codrus. In the VII century the archons were only 

By whom was it finally suppressed ? 

From whom were the Athenian? derived ? 

What is said of Cecrops ? — Of Theseus? — Ot'Meuestheus ? 
—Of Codrus? 

What was the civil constitution of Athens after the deaih of 
Codrus ? — Who was the first and who the last of the Archons ? 

How was the Archonship modified in the VIII centnrv ? — 
The VII ? 



112 FIFTH PART. 

annual ; nine of them were appointed, each of whom had 
peculiar functions, and all the citizens were admissible to 
the office. 

Soon the Athenians, felt the need of giving themselves 
laws; Draco was the first legislator; but his laws being 
too severe, were not executed, and the state relapsed into 
anarchy. 

New laws were requested from Solon (VI century). 
That sage lawgiver had the glory of re-establishing peace 
in Athens, and of preparing the way for the prosperity 
of his country. 

The form of government which Solon established was 
preserved, with slight modifications, during the whole 
period of the independence of Athens. It was almost 
entirely democratic. 

Meanwhile, from its earliest date, men sought to attack 
it ; the ambitious Pisistratus possessed himself by strata- 
gem of the sovereign power (VI century before J. C); 
and, after having been several times overthrown, he 
succeeded at length in seizing the authority again, and 
bequeathed it to his sons Hipparclius and Hippias. The 
first was slain by Harmodius and Aristogiton, (VI cen- 
tury) ; the second, having been driven out a little while 
after (•'>10), retired among the Persians, and stirred up 
against his country that Median or Persian war which 
was to cany to the highest degree the military reputation 
of the Athenians. In 490 Darius, son o^ Hijstaspes, king 
of Persia, fell upon Greece with a million of men: he 
was defeated by Miltiades on the plains of Marat'ion, in 

Who was the firsllawgiver of Athens? 

Whr.t became of his system of legislation ? 

What is said of Solon? — Of the coastilutioQ which Lu estab- 
lished ? 

V/hat is said of Pisistratus ?~0f Hipparchus and Hippias ? 
— Of Harmodlus and Aristogiton? 

What foreign enemy did Hippias excite ngainst his countrv ? 

What is said of Darius and Miltiades? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 113 

480 ; Kerxcs repassed the Hellespont with a more formi- 
dable army, possessed himself of Attica, and destroyed 
Athens ; but Themistocles defeated liim at Salamis, and 
he who had caused himself to be addressed as king of 
kings, scarcely found a bark for the purpose of flying into 
his own dominions (V century). 

After that epoch, Athens occupied the first rank in 
Greece ; every kind of glory came at once to render her 
illustrious. In her bosom the greatest statesmen were 
seen to rise and succeed each other : Themistocles, by his 
superior ability, rebuilt the walls of Athens in spite of 
the Spartans, and extended her power by sea ; Aristicles, 
by his justice, commanded the confidence of all the 
Greeks ; CImon, son of Miltiades, shewed himself worthy 
of his father, and routed the last remains of the Persian 
armies ; at the same time the republic sent out colonies 
on all sides, v/hich increased her possessions and her 
commerce. 

The splendid success of Athens, and the important 
services which she had rendered to the cause of the 
Greeks, soon secured to her the honor of the sJijncmacy, 
which, hitherto, had belonged to the Lacedcciannians. 

Perv:les succeeded Conon in the management of affairs 
(V century) ; he sustained himself during forty years 
at the head of tlie republic ; augmented the power of the 
people, humbled that of the Areopagus, and confirmed 
the authority of Athens over her allies ; but that authority 
def^enerating into tyranny, the Spartans, who more- 

What is said of Xerxes and Themistocles ? 

What was the condition of Athens at the close of the Persian 
war ? 

How was she rendered illustrious at this period by Themis - 
locles?— By Aristides ?--By Cimon?— By her colonies ? 

Did Athens at this time acquire the supremacy in Greece ? 

What is said of Pericles ? 

Did Athens abuse her ascendancy? 

To what did her tyranny provoke the Spartans ? 



114 FIFTH TART. 

over were jetilou: of Uic power of Alliens, Harmed 
an^ainst her a league into which all tlie mLilcontents en- 
tered, stirred up enemies against her on all sides, and 
took part against her in all quarrels; finally, after many 
truces and many ruptures, that cruel war of the Pelopo- 
7tcsius broke out, which lasted twenty seven years, and 
cut down the flower of Greece. 

During this war, the government underwent an eplie- 
i/ieral revolution. AlciblaJes having been exiled corrupt- 
ed the Athenian army at Samns, caused the dcjriGcrocy to 
be overturned at Athens, substituted for the assemblies of 
the people an assembly of five thousand chosen citizens, 
and for the senate a supreme council of four hundred 
members, who exercised the most cruel despotism. This 
council was abolished after four months, and the former 
constitution v/ith slight modifications re-established. 

After the unfortunate issue of the Pdoponessiaa war. 
Athens was despoiled of the supremacy, and an oVtgarcJiy 
of tliirtxj cliiefs was created, known by the name of tlie 
Thirty Tyra/tt'i ; but the atrocity of their government only 
hastened their ruin. The Thirty were driven out by 
Thrasybulus (401), and the constitution of Solon estab- 
lished anew. Athens speedily raised herself from the 
abasement into which she had fallen. 

Co?ion defeated the fleet of the Spartans, and restored 
to his country the superiority by sea : the rivalry of 



In what disastrous war did the hosillily of Sparta termi- 
nate. 

What revolution v/as effected at Athens diu-ing tlic Pe!oj)o- 
nessian war ? 

Who was its author ? — Whathefel the tour handrocd ? 

Was the ancient constitution of Athens re-established ? 

Wliat befel Athens at the close of \\\c Peloponcssian war ? 

What happened to the Thirty Tyrants ? 

What benefit to Athens from the administration of Thrasy- 
bulus? 

What is said of Conon? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 115 

Sparta and Thebes enabled Athens still more to repair her 
losses ; soon her cruel enemy was reduced to the neces- 
sity of imploring her assistance, and offering her the al- 
ternate command. But a new rival came to threaten the 
liberty of Athens and of all Greece. Philip was shrewd 
enough, in spite of the elo(|uence of Demosthenes and the 
vigorous opposition of Phocian, to strip the Athenians of 
many of their most powerful colonies ; he beat them at 
Cheronca (338), and caused the command of all the Gre- 
cian forces to be decreed to himself 

Alexander the Great, hh son, exercised over the Ailie- 
nians and the Greeks in general a powerful ascendant. 
After his death, Athens was scarcely free ; subject to the 
kings of Maccdo/tia, taken and retaken many times, she 
breathed a moment under Demetrius Poliorcetes^ but her 
independence was soon attacked on all sides. Besieged 
and taken by the general Sylla (I century), she remained 
thenceforward under the dominion of the Romans. 

SPARTANS OR LACED^-MONIANS. 

The origin of the Spartans is referred to Lelex, who 
lived in the XVI century before J. C. (1516). Sparta, 
which he founded or embellished, was governed at first by 
kings, whose succession has nothing certain about it until 
Tyn:]ariis. That prince is celebrated in the poetic his- 
toiy of his children, Castor, Pollux, Helen and Clytemnes- 
tra, whom he had by Leda. Jupiter, according to fable 



What is said of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes? 

What is said of Philip ofMacedon at this juncture ? 

What influence did Alexander exert in Greece? 

What was her condition after his death ? 

Under whom did she partially recover her independence ? 

l?y whom was it finally destroyed ? 

Bv whom was Sparta originallv jjoverned ? 

What is said of Tyndarus"? — Of bis children? 



116 FIFTH PART. 

was the father of Castor and Helen. Tyudarus had for 
Buccessors Castor and Pollux ; they left the throne to 
Menelaus, the husband of Helen, who Avas the occasion 
of the Trojan war. 

Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, had claims upon Lace- 
dcBmon by his mother Chjtemnestra y he easily obtained 
the crown, which he left to Tisamenes and Penthilus, hiL 
Bons ; but the latter were constrained to cede to the Hera- 
clidcB the kingdoms of Argos, Mycence and Lacedcemon. 
These descendents of Hercules had at that time for their 
chief Aristomaclnis, whose son Aristodeimis was put in 
possession of the kingdom of Lacedasmon. 

The two ^ow&Qi Aristodc7nus, Eurysthenes and Prodcs, 
mounted the throne together in 1125; and divided be- 
tween them the royal authority. 

After this time the Lacedcemonians were always gov- 
erned by two kings, and the throne was occupied during 
three centuries (280) by the descendents of Eurysthenes 
and Proclcs. 

The disturbances which were raised at Sparta on ac- 
count of this double royalty threatened the State with an 
inevitable anarchy, when Lycurgus, of the royal family, 
was chosen to remedy so many evils. His wise laws had 
all the success which was expected from them. He di- 
minished the authority of the kings, destroyed the passion 
for wealth, regulated the popular repasts, and the educa- 
tion of children; and when he beheld his laws in force he 
made the Spartans swear to observe them until his return 
from a voyage which he meditated. He departed, and 



Who were his succe«:sors ? 

What is said of Menelaus? — of Orestes? — of Tissameces 
and PenthiUis? — of the Heraclidaj ?— of the two sons of Aris- 
totlemus? — of the double royalty of Lacedaemon? — of the dis- 
turbances which it produced ? 

What is said of Lycurgus aad his laws ? 

By what device did he seek to perpetuate his code ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 117 

suffered himself to die with hunger at Dcljihos, or as 
others say, in Crete. 

The principal wars which the Spartans had to maintain 
were : first, against the Mcsscnians, whom they reduced 
to slavery, after three bloody conflicts; second, against the 
Thehans, whose city they took, and from which they were 
afterwards driven ; third, against the Athenians, their 
most formidable rivals. 

At the epoch of the Persian war they allied themselves 
with the other Greeks to repulse Xerxes : the noble devot- 
edness of their king, Leonidas, and o^ three hundred of their 
soldiers, at ThermophyJoi, covered them with honor; but 
jealous of the power of the Athenians, they declared war 
against them. Lysander, their general, took Athens and 
changed its government. Haughty Lacedcumon was in 
her turn humbled by the republic of Thebes^ and beheld 
herself obliged to renounce her conquests. 

The Spartans entered into the Achccan league, and 
submitted to Philojxjcmon, who abolished the laws of Ly- 
curgus. They afterward underwent the general fate of 
Greece, by falling under the Roman dominion. They 
were subjected to the power of the Turks in 1460, and 
form at the present day a part of Hellenia or Jfew Greece, 
Their descendents are the Mainotes. 

The ruins of ancient Spaiia are found near the town 
of Mutra. 

What were the principal wars of the Spartans against the 
Greeks ? 

How did they distinguish themselves during the Persian 
war ? 

To what measure were they lead by their jealousy of 
Athens? 

What is said of Lysander ? 

By whom was Sparta humbled in her turn? 

Into what league did the Spartans enter ? 

What is said of Philopcemon ? 

Under whose dominion did the Spartans afterward fall ? 

Of what country does Sparta form a part at present ? 



n3 FIFTH PART. 

CARTHAGINIANS. 

The Carthaginians descendetl from a colorsy of Pheni- 
cians which Dido, a Tyiian princess, flying from tlic 
tyranny of Pijgmalion, her brother, led into Africa (IX 
century). She built, upon the northern coast of that 
country, a city which she named Carthage (new city), with 
\\ citadel called Byrsa (hide or skin). 

The government of the Carthagijiians was republican, 
and combined three different authorities : tliat of the su- 
preme magistrates, or suffctes, that of the senate, and 
that of the people. The Carihaginians became so power- 
ful by their coramerco that they commanded not only a 
considerable portion of northern Africa, but the greater 
pait of the islands in the vicinity of that continent, such 
as Sici/j/, Sardinia, Sec. 

They had establishments in Spain and I/ah/, and their 
commerce extended into Ga7d, and even into Great Bri- 
tain. 

Having become the rival of Rome, Carthage had to sus- 
tain three struggles, called the Punic (Carthaginian) wars. 
In the first, which lasted twenty-four years, these two 
republics tested their strength : in the second, which last- 
ed seventeen years, Rome beheld herself upon the brink 
of ruin by the victorious march of Hannihal, who van- 
quished the Romans on the banks of the Tcssina, near the 
lake of Tn'hhia,r\QdiY that of T/ira.s7/mc7ic,Viud at Canvcv; 
but being obliged to return to Carthage, he was van- 
quished at Zama, (south of Carthage,) by PuhUus Scipio 



From whom were ihe Cartliaginians desceudecl ? 
What is said of Dido? 

What form of govern?nent was established at Carthage? 
By wliat means did she become great ? 

Over what countries did she extend her commercial empire? 
Wliat was the consequence of her rivalry with Rome? 
What is said of the first Punic war?— The second?— Ot 
fiannibal?— By whom and where was Hannibal vanquished ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. H9 

Africaniis ; in the third, which lasted nearly four years, 
Carthage WQ.3 utterly destroyed, in the II century, (14G,) 
by Sripio JEmilianus, Africanus II. The republic of 
Carthage then became a Roman province. 

At the fall of the Roman empire, the Vandals, German 
nations who had invaded the south of Spain, founded in 
Africa a kingdom which was destroyed by BcUsarius, the 
general of Justinian, emperor of the East (VI century 
after J. C). 

The Arah.'< or Saracens got possession of the territory 
of ancient Carthage in tho VII century, and different Arab 
dynasties reigned there. Finally, in the XVI century 
the Turks made themselves masters of it. 

The actual government of this country, nominally tri- 
butary to the Forte, is in the hands of a hereditary Moor- 
ish prince, who boars the title of bey, and who gives no 
other proofs of his dependence than some presents of con- 
siderable value which he sends annually to the Grand 
Seignor : this is the regency of Tuins. 

ROMANS. 

Italy was peopled by Ilh/rian, Iberian, Celtic, Germa7i^ 
and Asiatic colonies ; sonie Greek colonies settled in tho 
south of Italy, or Magna Grecia. 

It was from a Trojan colony however that the Romans 
boasted of being descended. In the XIII century, JEncas^ 



What was the issue of the third Punic war? 

Under whose dominion did Carthage pass at the fall of tlis 
Roman empire? 

By whom and when was the kingdom of the Vandals in 
Africa destroyed ? 

What is said of the Saracen dominion (here? — Of the Turk- 
ish?— What is said of the present government ? 

By whom was Italy first peopled ? 

From whom did ihe Romans boast of being descended ? 

What is reported of ^neas ? 



12€ FIFTH PART. 

flying from the conflagration of Troy, arrived in Latium. 
After the death of king Lailnus, whose daughter he mar- 
ried, he reigned over the Latins and the Trojans blended 
into a single people, and perished in a war against the 
Rutuli and the Etrusci. 

Ascanius or lulus, the son and successor of ^neaa, 
founded the city o^ Alba and reigned over Latium. The 
names of his successors are scarcely known until about 
the commencement of the VII I century before J. C, 
when the king of Latium, Numitor, was dethroned by his 
brother Amulius. The vestal Rhea Sylcia, daughter of 
Numitor, became the mother of Ilo?nuhcs and Remus. 

Fable has taken possession of the history of these 
twins, who re-established their grandfather on the throne. 
They set about building certain cabins near the Tiber. 
This is the commencement of iloTT^e and of her history. 

The duration of the Roman power includes about 
twelve centuries, from the foundation of Rome by Romulus 
(753), to the destruction of the empire of the west, under 
Romulus Augmtulus (476), by Odoacer, king of the Hcruli. 

We may divide this immense interval into three great 
epochs, viz: first, the kings; secondly, the republic; 
thirdly, the empire. 

ROME UNDER THE KINGS. 

(240 years. — Two centuries and about a half.) 

Seven kings governed Rome, and all are remarkable 
by their personal qualities, the importance of their insti- 



What is reported of Ascanius ? — Of Numitor and Amulius? 
Of Rhea Sylvia?— Of Romulus and Remus? 
Are these accounts of the origin of Rome for the most part 
fabulous ? — How long did the Roman power endure ? 
How may this long period be divided ? 
How long was Rome under the kings? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 121 

tutions and the great events of which they were either 
the authors or witnesses. 

First, Romulus built Rome and increased the number 
of the citizens by the union with them of a part of the 
Sabities ; he created civil laws, established a constitution 
which seven centuries afterward still subsisted in great 
measure, and laid a foundation for the universal dominion 
of the Romans (Vill century). 

Secondly, Numa Pompilius instituted the religion of 
Rome and its worship ; he dedicated the temple of Janus, 
divided the year into months, and published a code of 
very wise laws (VIII and VII centuries). 

Thirdly, Tulhis Hostillus gained a victory over the Al- 
bans, destroyed Alba, after the combat of the Uoratii and 
the Curiatii, and laid tlie foundation for the dominion 
of Rome over Latium (VIII century). 

Fourthly, Ancus Martins extended the dominion of 
Rome as far as the sea, and established the port of Os' 
thun, which shows that already Rome was giving herself 
to navigation, if at the same time she had not for her ob- 
ject piracy rather than commerce (VII century). 

Fifthly, Tarquin the Elder contracted an alliance v.-ith 
the Etruscans, and placed Rome, which he embellished, 
in a condition, by this means, to undertake some maritime 
enterprise (VII and VI centuries). 

Sixthly, Servius Tullius placed Rome at the head of the 
Latin league, which he consolidated by instituting a com- 
munity of sacrifices : in making a new division of the 
people, founded upon property, he created the important 
institutions of the census and the comities. This king, the 
most remarkable of them all, founded the edifice of the 
republic (VI century). 



What is said of them in general ? 

What was accomplished by Romulus? 

What was accomplished by Numa Pompilius? — By Tullus 
Hostilius? — Arcus Martins? — Tarquin tiie Elder? — Servius 
Tullius ? 6 



1J3 FlI'Til rAPvT. 

Seventhly, T'arquifi the IVcJtf J posiejijcu himaelf lif die 
government by viulence ; he sought to strengthen himself 
upon the throne by a closer alliance with the Vuhci and 
the Latins. But by this means, as well as by his tyranny, 
he rendered the plebeians and the patricians unfavorably 
disposed towards him. Still, his expulsion and the refjrm 
of the constitution, which was its sequel, were the work 
of the ambition of the senators; he was banished, and the 
royalty abolished, (509,) (VI century). 

HOME UNDEU THE rvEPUBLIC. 
(-300 Years. — Five Centuries.) 
FllOM THE TIME OF THE CONSULS. 

After the abolition of royalty, the Slate was constitut- 
ed a republic, and two temporary magistrates called con- 
suls were chosen every year. The first were Junius 
Brutus and Collatimis. 

To preserve her independence, thei'c public had to sus-- 
lain, from the commencement, wars against Por senna, 
king of Etruria and the sons of Tar(2?/iu ; but the heroism 
of Codes, of Scmvola, of ClcJla, and the courageous resis- 
tance of the Romans, caused her to triumph (VI cen- 

Tliis repose was followed by intestine dissensions caused 
by the reciprocal hatred of the plebeians and ihc patricians. 



What was accoinpILshcd by Tarquin the Proud ? 
How long did Rome continue under the Republic? 
What was the consulship ? — Who were the first consuls? 
Against whom diJ the Republic maintain wars of indepen- 
de nee ? 

By what means was her triumph secured ? 

By what was that triumpli succeeded ? 

To what did the internal dissensions of Rome give rise? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 123 

These rendered necessary the establishment of the d^cta- 
torshipy 49S years before Jesus Christ. Tit2is Lartius 
was the first dictator (only eleven years after the fall of 
the kings). 

These fatal struggles did not prevent the Romans from 
making war with advantage upon neighboring nations. 

Tlie Latins were conquered at Rcgilhis. It was there 
that Titus and Sextets perished, the sons of Tarquin the 
Proyd, who himself died at Cumas a short time after (495). 

New troubles arose at Rome ; the plebeians retired to 
the Mrrns Sacer, three miles from the city, and did not 
re enter it until the patricians had promised them the 
abolition of debts and the creation of an advocate of the 
(seople. The 2^0 pn Jar tribunes were created (405). The 
Volsci were beaten at Corioli by Marcius, who took the 
n:ime of Coriolantts (492). This young patrician, of a 
liiiughty and intractable character, was soon after con- 
demned to perpetual banishment, for having endeavored to 
annul the conventions of Moiis Sacer ; he departed, and 
returned at the head of the Volsci, laid siege to Rome, re- 
polled the prayers of the senators, and gave way only to 
the tears of his molher Vetaria. 

The consul Spurius Cassius renewed the disturbances 
of Rome by proposing the agra7-ian law ; he was accused 
of aspiring to royally ; and put to death (483). 

War was declared with the Eqiii, the Volsci and the 
Vcii. These last cut in pieces the three Jivvdred and six 

Who was the first dictator? 

Did the Roman«i wage successful war with their neighbors? 
What is said of the war with the Latins? — Of Tarquin and 
his sons? 

What were the results of the new disturbances ? 
When were the popular tribunes created? 
Where, and by whom, were the Volsci defeated ? 
What is said of Coriolanus? — Of Veturia ? 
What is said of Spurius Cassius? 
I:i what wars was the Republic next engaged ? 
What is said of the Veil ? 



124 FIFTH PART. 

Fahii near the river Crcmera, at the same time that ihroo 
liundred Spartans were vanquished and massacred at 
ThermopijlcB by the Persians (4?S0). 

The people next became indignant at llie abuses in- 
troduced by the consuls ; a tribune, Tercnlius Arsa, pro- 
posed a law which tended to fix the jurisprudence: this 
was the lex Terentia. It excited ten years of disturbance, 
'n the midst of which a rich Sabine, Ilerdoniusy got pos- 
session of the capitol. The people marched against him. 
Quintus Cincinnahis, taken from his plough, was made 
consul and dictator; he defeated the Eqni, and returned 
to resume his agriculture. TheTtraitian Jaw was finally 
consented to by the grandees, and the decemvirato estab- 
lished (451). It was then that the republic changed ita 
form. 

FROM THE TIME OF THE DECEMVIRS. 

The law of the tivelve tahhs was promulgated by ten 
magistrates n^vned deceinvirs, hut tlie abuse which they 
made of their power by prolonging it during three years, 
and by exercising an odious tyraimy, and finally tlie mar- 
tyrdom of the ys:)\xi\gVirglnia, persecuted by the decem- 
vir Jipphis ClGudvus, and sacrificed on the altar of free- 
dom by the hand of her father, occasioned their fall and 
the abolition of their office (449). 

Long and painful wars against different nations of 
Lafium filled the entire following epoch, without any de- 
cided result, though the advantage still remained to tho 
Komans. 



What next provoked the Roman populace? 
What remedy was proposed for their injuries ? 
What was the immediate effect of this proposal ? 
AVhat is said of Herdonius ? — Of Quintus Cincinnatus? 
What was the issue of the Lex Terentia ? 
When was the decemvirate established? 
What is said of its benefits, abuse and overthrow ? 
By what was the following epoch filled ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 125 

FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE QAUL/S. 

But tliG invasion of Brcnnus, chief of the Gauls (300) 
placed them within a hairs breadth of ruin. Rome, taken 
and»burnt, was saved only by the courage of Ca/uillus, 
who was at that time exiled. Fifty-tv/o years after this 
period (338), the Latin nations definitively submitted to 
the Republic. 

Then the Romans turned their arms against the Sam- 
nitcs (323), and the Etrasca?is (311). The former, who 
had caused the Romans to pass under the yoke at Furccc 
Caudlnce, were subdued in the year 272 before Jesus 
Christ. Crotona, Locres, Brmdesia, Tarcjiticm, and a part 
of Lucania and Bruttium speedily underwent the same 
fate, notwithstanding the elforts of Pyrrhus, khig of Ejn- 
rus, whom the inhabitants of these districts had called to 
their aid. 

Successes equally great crowned the Roman arms to the 
north of the Republic, and about the year 264 before Jesus 
Christ, she found herself nearly mistress of the whole of 
halt/. 

FROM THE TIME OF THE PUNIC WARS. 

At this epoch the wars against the Carthaginians com- 
menced. They are designated under the name of the 
Panic wars : there were three of them. 

The first, (264-240) g'ave the Romans Sicily; the se- 

When did the Gauls invade Rome ? 
Who delivered the city from ruin? 

How long after did the submission of the Laiius take place? 
Against whom did Rome next direct her arms ? 
When were the Samnites subdued? 
What other cities shared the same fate ? 
About what period v/as the conquest of Italy completed ? 
When did the Punic wars commence ? 

What island did the first of these wars give the Romans? — 
The second ? 



126 riFXli FART. 

coi)(j (218-201) *S/>am. This last is celebrated by the ri- 
valry of Puhlius Sci/tio, Africanus I, and Hannibal, gene- 
ral of the Carthaginians ; it fixed the attention of Europe. 
In the third (149-145), the Romans took possession of 
Africa : Carthage was destroyed. During the twoiatter 
wars, and in the intervals which they left between them, 
the four wars of Macedonia, against Fhilip and Perseus, 
and the war of St/ria, (191-lSS) took place; and others 
less important, which were terminated by the submission 
of the provinces of j3sia (188), Ltria (177), Macedonia 
(IG8), and Dalmatia (155). 

The capture of Thebes and Corinth decided the reduc- 
tion of Greece into a Roman jjrovince, under the name cf 
Achaia (146). 

Numantia, for a moment in revolt (141-133), succumb- 
ed with the rest of Spain. The conquest of the whole 
v/orld became less and less doubtful. Numerous and ce- 
lebrated wars against foreigners, among others those of 
Jugurtha (119-106), of the Sicilian slaves (lOl-l 02), of 
the Cimbri and the Teutones 102-101), of the Marsi (91- 
89), o£ Mithridaies, king of Pontus (88-G4), o^ Sertorius 
(85-72), of the Gauls (59-49), and the Parihians (54), 
signalized the following century : but the internal strug- 
gles of Rome, and the wars of citizen with citizen, ren- 
dered it still more sadly celebrated. 

The two attempts of the Gracchi (133-123) to restore 
to the people rights usurped by the patricians, v/ere the 
prelude to these commotions. Afterward, Marius and 

By what was this last distinguished ? 
What country did the third secure to Rome ? 
What other wars did she carry on during her two latter con- 
flicts with Carthage ? 

What resulted from her capture of Thebes and Corinth ? 

IIow did the revolt of Numantia terminate ? 

By what foreign wars was the following century signalized ? 

What interior agitations gave it a sad celebrity ? 

What was the prelude to these commotions ? * 



niSTOniCAL SKETCHES. 127 

Si/lla (8S-82), CccGfir and Pompcy, the latter of wliom was 
conquered at rhar-^alia (48), the triumvirs and Brutus 
(42), 0::tacius and Srxfics Pompcij (3G), and finally Ocfa- 
rius and Axthony (21), disputed with each other for tlio 
n.ighty power of Rome, on fields of batlle'covcrcd with 
\Wt blood of the Romans. Two proscriptloiifi, that of 
t^Ua (84) and tliat of the iriuntvirs (15), still further 
added to so many horroi^s. At length these struggles 
ce;^sed ; Rome, mistress of the world, acknowledged the 
power of a single master, and the imperial monarchy 
began after the viotosy of Octaviits Augiistus,Vit Attiwu, 
over Mark Anthoii}/, and Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, (31 
years befor^e Jesus Chrisl). 

K():\IE UNDER THE E.AIP E ROR.S. 

(Five ci'fdurics.) 

Tlie history of this period comprehends five agcrs. 

In the Jirst, which we call the age of the Caesars, Rome, 
after having tasted the most perfect calm and prosperity 
under Augustus, who protected and patronised letter^, 
underwent successively the tyi-anny of the cruel Tihcriuf^^ 
the senseless Caligula, the imbecile Cluadius, and tho 
a!rocioas Nero ; and she breathed an instant under Vespa- 
.suiu and Titus, only to fall into the hands of Domidan, 
who united in himself all that was odious in his prede- 
cessors. 

The second <-tntury^ or age of the Anionines, v.-as as 
lia{)py for the state as the first was unfortunate. Tho 



Wiiat persons disputed successively for the ascendant in 
Rome ? — What two events further enhanced these liorrors? 

When did the imperial monarchy of Rome begin ? 

How long was slie under the emperors ? 

By what (Tmperors is the age of the Cffisars distinguished ? 

What was the state of Rome under the'se emperors respec- 
tively ?— What is said o^. the :>£e of the Antcnines ? 



128 FIFTH PART. 

senate had nominated to the empire a man of probity, 
Nerva, (h'om 96 to 98,) to succeed whom four men, not 
less virtuous, presented themselves. Little anxious to 
leave the supreme power to a son or a nephew, Nerva 
consuUed only the interest of the state, and after having 
reigned two years, he adopted Trajan, (98) by origin a 
Spaniard, and the first foreigner who reached the throne 
of Rome. Trajan extended, by conquests in Dacia and 
*^sia, the bounds of the empire. Adrian, (117) with 
military talents, showed himself pacific and a zealous 
friend of letters and the fine arts ; he built a wall in the 
north of Britain against the Caledonians ; he enlarged 
new Carthage and rebuilt Jerusalem. Under him the 
Jews revolted, were defeated and finally dispersed (135). 
Antoninus, (138) the most virtuous of monarchs; his 
reign was the most prosperous period of the empire. 
Murcus Aureliiis, (168) surnamed \he 'plnloso2)her ; he 
associated with himself Lucius Verus, a prodigal and dis- 
sipated young man, to whom, notwithstanding, he gave 
his daughter in marriage. It was under this excellent 
prince that the bravery and the prodigies of the Christian 
Legion, called the thundering, are said to have taken 
place, in the war against the Marconianni and their allies. 
Marcus Aurelius succeeded in securing the frontiers of 
the empire along the Danube; but he v/as the first who 
permitted the barbarians to settle in the interior, and took 
them into the pay of the state ; he bequeathed the purple 
to his son, the cov/ardly and cruel Commodus, (180) 
under whom a horrible tyranny filled the empire with 
blood. A murder delivered the Romans from this mon- 
ster, but left the government without a guide. 

Here commences tJic third century, the age of military 



What is said of Nerva?— Trajan ?— Acltian ?— Antoninus ? 
-Marcus Aiireiius; ?— Commodus ? 
How may the third century be characterized? 



HISTOllICAL SKETCHES. 1^9 

anarchy. Pertifiax, (193) after a three months' reign, 
died by the hand of the soldiery. The crown was set up 
at auction. Didius Julianus ventured to purchase it. 
Pescenninus Niger, Septhnius Scverus and Albiiius dis- 
puted it with him. The first was proclaimed emperor 
in Syria, the second in Illy via, and the third in Britain 
(197). 

SejJtimius Severics, (197-211) who remained sole mas- 
ter of the empire, raised it again by a very firm reign, 
made war with the Parthians and the Britains, and re- 
established the wall of Adrian. He died at York ; but 
the cruel Garacalla, (211) his son, shook the government 
anew. He caused his brother Gcta to be assassinated in 
the ai-ms of his mother, desolated the provinces which he 
traversed, and made a fearful massacre of the people of 
Alexandria. Macrinus, the pra3torian prosfect, assassi- 
nated him. 

After the death of Caracalla the soldiers were once 
more masters of the empire. They elected successively 
Macrinus, who reigned only a year, (217) Hellogahalus, 
(218) a cruel and debauched prince ; Alexander Severus, 
one of the best rulers and greatest emperors of Rome, 
(222-235) who reigned many years, but whose adminis- 
tration could not eradicate the evils with which the em- 
pi i-e was infected. 

At liis death anarchy reappeared, more powerful 
than ever. Twenty-live princes and iifty usurpers in- 
vaded and for a moment occupied the throne. Only 

What is said of Pertinax ?— Of Didius Julianus?— Of Pes- 
cenninus Niger ? — Septimius Severus and Albinus? — Of Cara- 
calla? 

Who were masters of the empire afier the death of ttje 
latter? — Whom did they successively elect to the empire ? 

How long did Macrinus rei,2;n ? 

V/hat was the character of Hcliogahalus ? 

Wliat is said of Alexander Severus ? 

Wliat happened ngaln at his death? 
6* 



130 Fii' TH PART. 

three among them, Claudius II, Aurelian and Uwclttian 
desei"\'e mention. Claudius II, (2G8 270) a good gen- 
eral, gained important victories over the Got/is.; he was 
surnamed the Gothic. 

A'UreUan, (270-275) a great warrior, subdued the prin- 
ccy of the East, after the defeat of Zcnohia, queen of Pal- 
tizyra ; he reduced under his obedience all the countries 
of the West, which, since Gallicnus, (259) had possessed 
independent masters. He died by assassination. 

The death of -'lwrtZ/«;e was followed by an interregnum 
of six months ; the senate disposed of the throne in favor 
of Proljics(21i6). That emperor, who was always at war 
with the Germans, whom he repulsed, was not want- 
ing in a certain acquaintance with the arts of peace; he 
built many cities, which he peopled with prisoners of 
Vv'ar, and made his soldiers plant vineyards upon the hills 
near the Rhine. 

Dioclefuui (284) ; at his accession the partitions of the 
empire began. That prince suspended during a certain 
lirne the evils of the empire, but he abdicated the govern- 
ment and retired to Sulona. 

The fourth ccHturij, or age of Constantiae, is celebrated : 
first, for the triumph of Christianity, which was exalted 
to the throne in the person of Constanline (312); second- 
ly, for the translation of the empire to Byzantiuvi, which 
took the name of Constant ifWjdc ; thirdly, for the victories 
and the reign of Julian the Apostate, (300) the last prince 
of the race of Coiistantine, and the most able of them al] ; 
he al>jured the Christian religion and made vain efforts 
to restore Paganism : he carried war into Persia, and 
died of a woun<l which he received while fighting (303); 



What i« said of Claudius II? — Of Anrcliati ? 
Wlial is said of Prol.ius ?— Of Diocletian ? 
What may the fourih age be called ? 

By v,'hat personr>gr« and event:? is it disiingnished? 



Hl^JTO^viCAL SKETCHES. 231 

fourtLly, for ihe ft/tal dicisicH, of (he empire (3C4) between 
Valens and Vale.'Umiafi. The great Thcodoshcs reunite*], 
in 394, the Rom.aa ivorld, but at liis death he consum- 
mated the separation of the two empires, which he divikil 
between his two sons : Arcadlus reigned in the Ecu-t, 
Honorhis in the West (39.5). 

Then tlie perpetual invasions of the barbarians were 
seen to multiply, who ncHwithstanding did not yet estab- 
lish themselves in the heart of the emjiire. • 

In the fifth centunj, or age of invasions, the Roman le- 
gions abandoned Britain and Gaul to the Angles, the 
Franks and the Burgundians, Spain to the Alani, the 
tSuevi and the Vingoiks, Africa to the Vandah, and the 
north of Italy to all the barbarians. The imperial purple, 
usurped, bestowed and purchased by turns, covered phan- 
toms of princes, and was degraded more and more. The 
Saeve Rinimtr, who did not condescend to assume ir, 
clothed with it in suc'cssion *S'c<'7t 7^.9 and Ant/temius ; Au- 
gust uJus, who succeeded him, (475) was, in the follovvinc? 
year, driven from tlie throne by Odoacer, king of the He- 
ruli, v/ho refused the empire, and substituted for the title 
of emperor of the Romans that of king of Italy. There 
were no more Romans except at Consta'ntinojde, where 
by slow degrees they took the name of Greeks, and com- 
pletely forgot from whom they were descended (47G). On 
tlie ruins of the western empire all the modern states ro'^e 
in succession 



Ey what Vv-as the lifUi a^^c of the empire distinguished ? 

What bnrbarous tribes took po'^sesslon of Britian and Greece? 
— Of Spain ?— Of Africa l—Ol tlie north of Italy ? 

Mow was the imperial purple disposed of ? 

What was the character of those who received it ? 

What Is saidofRiciiner and Odoacer ?— Of Sevcrus, Antbe- 
mins and Au2;a^tLllu=: ? 

What is said of the Roman deger.era^y at this time ? 

What states sprung fr(im tlie ruins of the 



empire 



132 FIFTH PART. 

PERSIANS. 

Persia is called, in holy scripture, the country of Elam, 
from the name of a son of Shem. The first known king 
"of this country is Ckedorlaomer, who came, with four 
kings, his allies, to invade Palestine, to take and pillage 
Sodom, and to carry oft' Lot a prisoner; but Persia did 
not emerge from obscurity imtil after the end of the first 
Assyrian empire. 

VJhQr\Arhaces had enfranchised the Medes, those nations 
gave themselves laws, divided themselves into tribes and 
established judges for such disputes as might arise. De- 
joces was the first king whom they elected. He devoted 
himself principally to civilizing his subjects. 

To Dejoces, succeeded, without leaving any great me- 
morial : Pkraortes, Cyaxares I, Astt/ages and Cyaxares II, 
(Darius the Medc). 

Cyaxcres //nominated for general of his army Cyrus, the 
eon of Mandane, his sister, and of Caynbyses, king of Per- 
sia, a subject of the Median empire. Cyrus took CroBs^us, 
king of Lydia, at the battle of T/iymbroca, near Sardis, 
he subdued the other allies of Neriglissar, king of Baby- 
lon, marched against that city, and got possession of it 
after a long siege. Having turned the waters of the Eu- 
plirates, he penetrated, by a channel of that river, to the 
bosom of the city, where Belshazzer, the successor of 
Neriglissar, was celebrating a great feast. That prince 

What is the scripture name of Persia ? 

Who was the first king of Persia ? 

When did the Persians emerge from obscurity ? 

What did the Medes do after their enfranchisement ? 

Who was the first elective monarch? 

What is said of him ? 

Who were his successors until Cyaxares H? 

Whom did Cyaxares nominate for his general ? 

Whom did Cyrus capture at the battle'of Thymbroea? 

By what means did he fi;et possession of Babylon ? 

What was the fate of Belshazzer ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 13*3 

was slain with all the grandees of his court, whom he had 
assembled at a magnificent repast. 

Some time afterward Cyaxcrcs and Ca?nhyses died ; Cyrus 
succeeded them in 55Q, and uniting the kingdom of the 
Males to that of the Persiatis, he founded the greatest em- 
pire which until then had existed in the world. 

This great conqueror published, in 53G before J. C, 
the famous decree in favor of the Jews, who had been in 
captivity for seventy years, and whom he permitted to re- 
turn to Jerusalem. Pursuing his conquests afterwards, iic 
established for the bounds of his empire, to the east the 
KivER Indus, to the north the Caspian sea and the Euxinc, 
to the west the Jb^gea,n sea, to the south Ethiojjia and the 
Arahian gulf. According to Herodotus, he was slain in a 
battle against Tomyris, queen of the Scytliians or Massa- 
gctces, who plunged the head of Cyrus into a vessel full of 
blood : Fill yourself tcitk it, said she, since you have 
ahvays thirsted for it. 

Cai7ihyscs succeeded Cyrus, his father (from 520 to 
522). He made the conquest of Egypt, and even attempt- 
ed to subdue Ethiopia. He was unfortunately too cele- 
brated for his cruelty and tyranny, and did not long sur- 
vive his brother Smerdis, whom he had put to death. One 
of the magi passed himself off for that unfortunate prince, 
and succeeded in reigning seven months under the name 
of Smerdis; but the imposture was discovered, and the un- 
v/orthy priest was massacred by the principal lords who 
liad revolted against him. One of them, Darius, the son 
of Ilystaspes, (from 321 to 485,) possessed himself of the 



Whom (lid Cyrus succeed in 556 ? 
What famous decree did he publish in 536 before C. ? 
What bounds did Cyrus fix to his empire ? 
What account of his death is given by Herodotus ? 
What is said of Cambyses ?— Of Smerdis?— Of the false 
Smerdis ? v 

How did Darius get possession of the kingdom ? 



134 Flirii lAKT. 

kingdom, v/jilcb he owed, it is said, to liic winnnowing of 
Vils horse. He showed some warlike virtues, but liis am- 
bition cost Persia a great deal of blood. He caused him- 
self to be called t/i<; best, and tJte h'.st proportknicd^ (j' all 
711' n. 

He pa*?sed the Thracian Bocphcfi^us in order to march 
against the Scythians o^ Europe ; he advanced beyond the 
Panuhe without being able to reach thcin, and lost a great 
raany men. 

It was this Darius who carried the first Persian war 
into Grcrce, designing at the outset to subdue a nativni 
which appeared to him too proud, and of whom, Ktill, he 
had heard no mention made except by a Greek physician 
called Dcmoccilcs, and afterward to avenge Hippias tlie 
tyrant of Athens, who had come to request succor of hini. 
This is the first Median or Persian war. 

Darius sent into Greece his son-in-law, JMardonius, at 
the head of a formidable army. Miltiades defeated h'lra 
with ten thousand men at Marathon, in the year 490, 
Darius died a little while after. 

[As llio hUiory (if ttio IVivians is entliciy connecUsi with ihnt of t'le 
(.'loeks after the rtiign of Dariur^, we slia'.i oriy indicate litre the m'>st 
memorable events coJinectOfJ wiili i:.] 

To Duri(i<i succeeded Xerxes I (185-472), his s:>i], 
who, thinking he could repair the aflront which the Per- 
sian arms had experienced in Greece, directed his troops 
towards that country. (This was the second Media -i 
vvaj). Then took place, in -ISO, the battle of Therrnrp?/!fr, 
the naval combat near Artenmia, and the ?Kittle of Sala- 

What was his character ? 

r>id he succeed in his invasion of S<jyihla? 

What induced liim to invade Greece ? 

What success did Mardonius meet with. ? 

Wi'h v.'}!at history is tliat of Persia, aftfjr Dariu?, liendcu ? 

Who succeeded Darius ? 

What are ihe leading events of fi-e second Median war? 



HISTORICAL SKliXCIIES. 135 

mis ; and finally, a year alter, the combats of PlaUai and 
Mi/cale. Artahanus, captain of the guards of Xerxes, 
assassinated him and caused Artaxerxes Longimauvs to 
ascend tlie throne (465-424), under whom the war be- 
tween the Greeks and Persians ended, by the defeat of 
the Persian fleet near the river Euri/medan : Cunon, son 
of Miliiades, commanded the Greeks. It was in reply 
to the request of this prince that the celebrated nipjjo- 
cratcs refused to go into Persia notwithstanding the most 
splendid promises, because the Greeks, afflicted by the 
pestilence, had need of his care and talents. It was, 
moreover, at the court of Artaxerxes Longimanus that 
Theniistodes took refuge. 

The history of Persia pi'cscnts no more than two cele- 
brated reigns, that of Artaxerxes Jibie/Hon, under whor.i 
the famous retreat of the ten thousand took place, in 401, 
and the treaty of Antalcidas (787) ; and that of Darius 
III, Codomanus, who punished the assassin of his prede- 
cessors, the cruel Egyptian Bagoas (336-330). 

Persia might possibly have enjoyed under this prince 
the delights of a dearly bought peace, if the great Alexan- 
der had not proposed to himself the conquest of the 
world. 

Darius, attacked by the Macedonian hero, lost succcs- 
Bively the battles of the Granicus, the Issus and Arbela. 

Having no longer with him anything but a few troops 
without courage, Darius was retiring towards Parthia, 
when Bessiis, the commander of Bactriana, seized his 
person and chained him in a chariot. The arrival of Alex- 

What is said of Artahanus ? — Of Artaxerxes Lon^imanu*?? 

What is said of Cimon ? — Of Hippocrates? — Of Theniis- 
todes ? 

What are the only celebraleil reigns in the history of Per- 
sia ? — What is said ofPersja under Codomanus? 

What battles did he lose when fighting with Alexander 1. 

What became of him after liis defeat ? 



136 FIFTH PART. 

ander determined Bessus to fly, and the conqueror receiv- 
ed the last sighs of the king of the Persians. 

With Darius Codomanus ended the Persian monarchy,' 
which had lasted 205 years. 

MACEDONIANS. 

The origin of the nations of Macedonia, like that of 
most of the ancient populations, is covered with dark- 
ness. It is useless to seek to clear up this obscurity ; it 
suffices to know that the ancestors of those who became 
by slow degrees the masters of all Greece and the whole 
of Asia, were a colony of Argivcs who, under the conduct 
of Caranus, originally of Argos, and a descendant of 
Hercules, came to settle in Macedonia in 867. 

The Macedonians had always been considered brave and 
courageous ; but it was only after the reign of P/iilip, 
the father of Alexander the Great, that war became with 
them a national employment. Before that time Macedo- 
nia was a hereditary kingdom, but of so little considera- 
tion that Demosthenes said : "It is a vile corner of the 
world, which has not produced so much as a good slave." 

The many kings who reigned after Caranus, had not 
been able to make this kingdom emerge from its obscu- 
rity. Intestine dissensions had, on the contrary, rendered 
it less and less fitted to distinguish itself, when Perdiccas, 
one of its kings, deceased, leaving for a successor his 
son A^nyntas, still an infant. Macedonia then became the 
theatre of domestic troubles ; every body pretended to 
the throne; Pavsanius and Argceus iook. up arms against 
each other; enemies, profiting by these divisions, pene- 



What v.'as the origin of the Macedonians ? 

What is said of Macedonia before and after the reii,n of 
Philip? 

What dissensions broke out during tlic minority of Amyn- 
tans ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 137 

Irated into llie heart of the state ; but all disorder ceased 
on the arrival of Philip, son of Amyntas II and of the 
queen Eurydicc. Having been sent as an hostage to 
Thehcs, he was at once tlie friend and pupil o^ Pdopidas, 
of Polynmis, the father of Epaminondas, and of Epam- 
inondas himself, with whom he learned the great art of 
governing men and conducting affairs. Philip, at the 
news of the death of Perdircas, escaped from Thehes, 
arrived in Macedonia, caused himself to be declared the 
tutor of liis nephew, and finally got possession of the 
throne of Macedonia, at the age of only twenty-four 
.years, but combining in himself, though young, all the 
qualillcs of a great politician. The Athenians, mean- 
while, in the midst of disorder and effeminacy, did not 
behold witliout fear the accession of Philip ; they imme- 
diately embraced the party of A?'g(BUs. The new king 
of Macedonia marched against his rival, and concluded 
with the Athenians a delusive peace; for, a short time 
after, he possessed him.self of Amphipolis, although that 
city was an Athenian colony; and, to take from his for- 
mer masters all pretext for complaining, he declared the 
city free. Two principal means were employed by this 
monarch, the greatest politician of his age, for accom- 
plishing his designs. The first was to provide himself 
with organs of intelligence in all the republics of Greece, 
and to corrupt, with the treasures of Macedonia, the 
principal magistrates and the best orators of that coun- 
try; the second, to cause himself to be charged by the 
Amphictijons with the care of avenging the injuries done 
to the temple o^ Delphos by the Phocians, whom he beat, 



How did Philip get possession of the throne? 

What was his character ? 

What effect did his accession produce on the Athenians? 

What delusive policy did Philip practice towards them ? 

What means did he employ for effecting his designs? 

Were they effectual ? 



138 FIFTH TAliT. 

and wiiose pjdco he look in the cou:icil. This victory 
^')iii an end to the sacred war, which had lasted ten years, 
and opened to Philip the entrance into Greece, whose 
conquest he projected. 

What cliiefly arrested the progress of this monarch 
was the orators, wlio exerted a powerful influeucc over 
the Athenians. He had recourse to his wealth in oidcr 
to buy up their eloquence. JEscJdnes, Donades, and some 
others, were «ot able to resist this means of seduction ; 
Phocion, that illustrious general whom Demosthenes call- 
ed the axe of his cliscoitrscs^ and who had conquered 
riiilip at the island of Euhom, was incorruptible : his 
views, howevei-, were pacific, and consequently he gave 
the king of Macedonia little uneasiness. But the greatest 
enemy of that prince, he who had the skill to detect his 
policy, and who mounted the tribune only to preserve the 
Aihcnians from his snares, was this same Donosthcnc^, 
that illustrious orator, whose philippics are a model of 
eloquence and patriotism. In vain did Philip cover all 
his projects with a mysterious veil; in vain did he pur- 
chase by means of mouey the responses of the Delphian 
priestess ; DcmostJicncs divined the whole pi'ocoduro, 
thv/arted all his measures, and told the Athenians that 
P<jthia philipized. Still, the policy' of PA/Z^; came out 
of this struggle victorious. That prince made himself 
master of Mcthouc and Olt/nthas, afterward re-entered 
into Greece, under pretence of assisting at the diet of 
the Amphictyons, passed Thcrmopijlie, fell suddenly upon 
ElathcLa, Vv-hich he took, and filled all Greece with asto- 



Whal were the consequences of his victory over (he FLo- 
.in«i ? — How did he deal wkh the Athenian orators ? 



CI 

What is said of Phocion ? 



Who was die most formidable enemy of Philip ? 
I)i(l Demosthenes detect and expose his schemes ? 
Was the policy of Philip still successful? 
What vlctoric? did he achieve in Greece ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 139 

niyhment and terror. Finally, continuing his victorions 
march, he defeated the Athenians at Cheronaa (338). 
He owed the success of that battle to the valor of his son 
Alexander, then nineteen years of age, and to the excel- 
lence of that Macedonian phalanx so vaunted in history. 

This victory caused Philip so much joy, that he trans- 
ported himself to the place of combat, insulting the dead 
and the prisoners, and setting to music the first words of 
a decree which Demosthenes had caused to be passed 
against him. It is said that the orator, Dcmades, indig- 
nant at this conduct, ventured to say to that prince : 
"ForturiC has given you the part of Agamemfio?i, and 
you play that of T/tc.^.ites.'' Philip made peace with 
the Athejiian^ and w^ent to carry on, in company with 
them, the war in Asia, when Fausanias, a young Mace- 
donian, (356,) assassinated him in the games which were 
celebrated in honor of the marriage of Cleopatra, the 
king's daughter, with Alexander, king of Epirus, brother 
of Ohjnipias, whom Philip had repudiated in order to 
espouse Cleopatra, niece of Attalm, one of the principal 
officers of his army. 

As soon as the Atheiiians learnt the death of that 
prince, they delivered themselves up to the most im- 
moderate joy, and Demosthenes crowned himself with a 
garland, although his daughter had just died. Alexander, 
the son and successor of Philip, was destined to make 
them pay dearly for this conduct, unworthy of a people 
who aspired to the honor of being regarded as the most 
polished on the earth. 

The death of Philip seemed to have aroused every 



To what was he indebted for his success at CheronfPa ? 

How (lid he conduct himself on the field of victory ? 

How did Demades reprove him ? 

Did Philip make peace with the Athenians ? 

When and by whom was he assassinated ? • 

How did the tidincs of his death alfect the Athenians? 



140 FIFTH PART. 

passion of the Greeks ; all bad trembled before that 
prince, all united against his successor, who was thought 
to be unfit to govern. Demosthenes reanimated the hopes 
of the Athenians ; the cities tributary to Macedonia 
endeavored to shake ofi' their yoke; Amyntas and Attains 
aspired to the crown ; in fine, the kingdom, threatened by 
factions within and by formidable neighbors without, de- 
manded a man consummate in the art of governing. 
Alexander, whom we have already seen at the battle of 
■ C/ieronc^a, presented himself as a successor to Philip, his 
father; only twenty-one years of age, he united already 
to great natural endowments an excellent education. The 
desire of surpassing the exploits of his father, and the 
lessons of the celebrated Aristotle^ would have made of 
him an accomplished monarch, if he had not suffered 
himself to be carried away by two passions terrible in a 
prince, who ought, above all, to consult the interest of 
his people : an unmeasured ambition and the desire of 
glory (336). 

Alexander did not listen to the timid counsels of his 
friends, who wished to induce him to abandon Greece; 
he found in his greatness of soul and in his courage the 
means of pacifying his dominions. He caused Amyntas 
to be slain, and reduced by the force of his arms the bar- 
barous nations which had revolted from the Macedonian 
governm-jnt. The eloquence of Demosthenes had caused 
the Thebans to rebel, and the Athejiians had entered into 
the league; c/^/t'a:;^;?^?^?;' marched by long journeys towards 
Greece, penetrated into it, laid siege to Thebes, carried it 

How were they disposed towards his successor? 

What course was pursued by Demosthenes? — By Amyn- 
tas and Altalus ? 

What was the state of Macedonia at this lime ? 

What was the character of Alexander ? 

Did he regard the timid counsels of his friends ? 

What did lie do to Amyntas? — To his barbarian enemies ? — 
To the Thebans?— The Athenians ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 141 

by assault, delivered it to pillage, and utterly consumed 
it with fire. Greece, trembling and astonished, sent am- 
bassadors to congratulate the Macedonian prince, who 
demanded that ten orators should be delivered up to him, 
among whom was Demosthenes ; but the Athenians suc- 
ceeded in bending him from his purpose, and he content- 
ed himself wath the exile of Charidcmus, a distinguished 
general, who went to seek an asylum at the court of the 
king of Persia. 

Greece pacified, Alexander was no longer occupied, 
except with the task of carrying on the war against the 
Persians ; for this end, he convoked at Corinth all the 
Grecian states, and caused him^self to be appointed gene- 
ralissimo of the army. The Laced cemonians alone refused 
to furnish him troops. On returning into his own domin- 
ions he regulated the interior of his kingdom, and ap- 
pointed Antipater governor in his absence. 

It is pretended, that while he meditated at Dium the 
plan of the expediticm which he was about to make, ho 
saw in a dream an old man full of majesty, in the dress 
of a high priest, who invited him to pass over into Asia, 
promising him the Persian e^npire (334). Forthwith, 
Alexander crossed the Hellespont at the head of a well 
disciplined army; he landed in Asia, offered sacifice on 
the tomb of Achilles, and defeated, at the banks of the 
Granicus, the Persians led by Memnan, lieutenant of 
Darius. This first success opened to him the gates of 
Sardis, Miletus, Haiicarnassns, the kingdom of Pontvs, 

What enterprise engaged him after the pacification of 
Greece ? 

What preliminar}' did he adopt in this behalf? 

Who opposed the measure? 

What did he dw on his return to Macedonia? 

V/hat is reported of his vision at Dium ? 

What effect had this vision upon him ? 

Whom did he defeat on the Granicus? 

What was the consequence of his success there ? 



142 Finn PART. 

ami in fine, of all lie cities of Phrygia. x\fter having cut 
at Gardimn \\\q gordian knot* and subdued the barbarous 
nalions on the frontiers of Lycia, he permitted the soldiers 
who were newly married to remain and pass the winter 
in Macedonia. In the following cajnpaign he subdued 
Galaila, Fapldagonia, Caj^padocia, and at last Cilicia, 
\vhere he was arrested by a malady with which he wns 
attacked from having bathed in the Cydnvs. Recovered 
from this indisposition, he marched against Darius and de- 
feated him near the city of Issns. He made himself mas- 
ter of his camp, his treasures, and even his family (333). 

Alexander obtained command of the sea, by possessing 
himself of Tyre after a siege of seven months ; he sub- 
daed Egypt without a battle, and founded Alexandria . 

Finally, the desire of glory on one hand, and the 
necessity of defence on the other, brought the competi- 
tors together a third time. Darius was entirely defeated 
in the plains of Gangamidia, near Jlrhda (331). Tho 
king of Per.-^ia in his flight having been betiayed by his 
own paity, was put in chains and treated with indignity 
by Bcssus, one of his generals, who assassinated him at 
the moment when Alexander was coming to meet him. 
The hero received his last sigh (330). 

What (lid he do at Gordiurn? — On tlie borders ofLvcia ? 
Wlint permission did he give his newly married soldiers? 
What eonquest.s did lie make In the following campaign ? 
What bcfel him at Cilicia ? 
What did he do after ijis recovery ? 
How did he succeed against Tyre and Egyj">t ? 
What city did he found in the latter countVy ? 
What motives arrayed Alexander and Darius against eacli 
other again ? — What was the result?— And the fate of Darius? 

Gordius was a kin^ of Phrygia. The knot which tied the yoke to 
tlio draiight-trec of his chariot, was made in such a mannor that the ei)d» 
of ilje cord could not be perceived. A report vcm circulated that tho 
en-ipiro of Asia had been promised by the oracle to him that could untie 
this knot, .\lexander, when ho parsed by Gordium, cut the knot with 
lii* sword. 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 143 

With Darius tbe empire of the Persimis ended, after a 
duration of more than two centuries. 

After having subjugated the empire of Cyn/s, Alexan- 
der proceeded to carry hia victorious arms into the Indies. 
The success he had against Porus induced him to aban- 
don the character of moderation which, until then, ho 
had shown. Intoxicated wilh his conquests, he suffered 
himself to be carried to every excess which pride and 
prosperity could suggest. He returned to Bahylov, 
where a slow but consuming fever, caused by intempe- 
r:ince or poison, brought him to the tomb in the vigor of 
his age, after a reign of twelve years. 

At the death of AJcxander, in 324, hie* vast monarchy 
was dismembered. Four generals, after bloody wars, 
divided among themselves the countries which composed 
it : firstly, Macedoy^ia proper fell to Cassandcr ; secondly, 
Thrace and Biihynia to Ly.mnnrhiis ; thirdly, Syria V.^ 
Sdeiicv.s ; fourthly, I'^gypt to Ptolen}y, the chief of iho 
Lagides. ^ 

As to JSIaccdonia proper, the Greeks made vain cf^<>r^3 
to subdue it, and their bloody struggles increased to such 
a degree, that finally the Jiomavs terminated the debate 
by making war witii Philip and Perscvs ; tiie latter of 
whom was conquered at Pydna by Pavlns JEmilins, and 
conducted pri^oncr to Rome (ICS). 

THE ROMAN EMriRE OF THE EAST. 

The Eastern empire was composed of all that had 
been included in the priefecture of the East, as well as 

V7iih v.hom did die Persian empire terminate? 
What country did Alexander next invade? 
What was the cflTect ofliis i^uccess on his character and con- 
(ijjPt 7 — Where and how did he die ? 

How was his monarchy divided after his death ? 
Did the Greeks exert themselves to sub(h;c Macedonia? 
What was the result of those struggles? 
Who conquered Perseus ? 



144 FIFTH PART. 

the prcEfecturo of lllyria — that is to say, in Asia, Anato- 
Hay Arabia and Buria -, in Africa, Egypt and Lybia ; in 
Eiirojic, all llie country situated along the Damiue, as- 
cending that river as high as Belgrade. 

Constantine. the Great had transferred the seat of the 
Ronian empire \.o Byzantium, which was afterward 
called Constantinople. After the death of that prince, 
(336,) Constantine II, Constantius and Constans, his sons, 
Julian the Apostate and Jovian, reigned successively over 
the whole of the empire. 

Then the first division of the empire took place, 364, 
under Valentinian I, who retained for himself the West 
and gave the East to his brother V(ilens ; but the com- 
plete separation of the two empires did not take place 
until 395, at the death of Theodosius the Great, who, 
after having reunited them both, left that of the East to 
Arcadius, and that of the West to Honorius. We have 
seen the latter falling beneath the strokes of the Ileruli, 
in 476 ; we shall occupy ourselves then exclusively with 
the former. 

Nothing is more revolting than the detailed history of 
that empire ; its annals present but few princes worthy 
of notice, while we read there, on every page, multiplied 
cruelties, usurpations and religious quarrels. The prin- 
ces who may be cited are : 

Thcodosius II, called the Younger, son of Arcadius, to 
whom we are indebted for the code which bears his 



Of what countries was the Eastern empire composed ? 

What is said of Constantine the Great? 

Who were his successors until Jovian? 

Under whom and when did the first division of the empire 
take place ? — What distribution did Valentinian make of it? 

Under whom did the complete and final separation of the 
tsvo empires take place ? 

Who had the Eastern and who the Western empire ? 

What is said of the history of the Eastern empire ? 

What is said of Theodosius II "^ — Of his code ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 345 

name, and in which he collected all the imperial consti- 
tutions, from Constantine to himself. This code was not 
in use until the time of Justinian (VI century) ; but the 
Ostrogoths, the Lombards, the Visigoths, the Burgundians, 
the Franks, and other nations who were settled in the 
Roman provinces, preserved it. Theodosius had a sister 
called Pulchcria, who, during his minority, governed the 
kingdom with firmness ; Athenais, his wife, daughter of 
Leontinus, an Athenian philosopher, was very learned 
(408-450). 

Justinian, whose reign was full of glory, of faults and 
of misfortunes. BelLsarius and Narses, his generals, ren- 
dered Italy dindi Africa subject to him; but what confer- 
ed most honor an this prince, was a code of laws drawn 
up by the quaestor Tribonian. This system of legisla- 
tion, though incomplete, is highly esteemed (527-565). 

Heraclius, under whom Mahomet appeared in Q>22. 
This emperor defeated the Persians, and made alliance 
with the Turks y the Arabs took from him Syria and 
Egy^t (from 632 to 641). 

Leo III, the Isaurian, of low origin, but who distin- 
guished himself by his courage. He suppressed the wor- 
ship of images, and thus began the religious quarrel of 
the Iconoclasts (717-741). 

Co7ista7itine IV, Copronymus, whose eyes his mother 
Irene caused to be dug out. That princess, of great ca- 
pacity, but of a blind superstition, committed atrocities 
towards her people. 



Who was Pulcheria? — Athenais? 
What was the character of Justinian's reign ? 
Who were his generals, and what were their exploits ? 
What conferred most honor on his reign? 
What is said of Heraclius ?— Of Leo the Isaurian ?— Of Con- 
stantine Copronymus? — Of Irene? 



146 FirTH PART. 

I'AMILY or Tin: COMNENI. 

Alexis Comnc7i2/s, who was beiiten in Dahjiaf.ia bj Ra- 
hcrl Guucardy duke oi Calabria. It was under him that 
tlie first crusade tcwk place. He deceived the cruaader.s 
who parsed by Constantinople on ibcir way to Palcstuie. 
Anna ComncTM, his daughter, a princess of much talenr, 
has written his hfe in fifteen books, from 1081 to 11 0^. 

JoJm Comncnu-i, wlio made himself master of Armenia.. 
A poisoned arrow, which he had in his quiver, pnxhiccd 
his death : he was a good and just prince. 

Manvel Comncrtus, who betrayed the warriors of llio 
second crusade : he conducted himself sufficiently well 
with regard to Louis the Younger. Roger I, king of 
Sicily, made war upon him j it lasted during fi^ve years : 
Manuel destroyed the Roman marine through avarice 
(from 1143 to IISO). 

Alexis II Co:mic7ius. Andronicus, eousin-german of 
Manuel, rendered himself master of Constantinople dur- 
ing his minority, and cansed the empress-mother, called 
Mary, to be strangled. The young emperor eommitteJ 
unheard of ciiiclties tou ards the great ; }>nt llie people, 
indignant at so many crimes, laid hold of the tyrant, load- 
ed him with chains, overwhelmed him with tormtjnts, and 
hung him by the feet (from 1180 to 11S3 and 11S5). 

Isaac Angelus gained the affection of his subjects by 
his mildness, but he was of a feeble character, and devot- 
ed to his pleasures. His brother, Alexis Angelus, de- 
throned him, caused his eyes to Ix) dug out and threw 
him into a prison (from 1185 to 1195); but Alexia tho 



What happened under tlje reign of Alexis Comnenus ? 

What is said of Anna Coranena ? 

What were the achievement, death and character of John 
Comnenus ? 

What is narrated of Manuel Comnenus ?~Of Alexis II and 
Andronicus? — Of Isaac Angelus and his brother Alexis? — Of 
iiis son ? 



HISTORICAL SitETCHES. 147 

Bon of Isaac, fieil, betook himself to his sister Irene, wife 
of the emperor of Germany, and raised in favor of hia 
father the entire West. The crusaders were then assem- 
bled at Venice; they directed their course towards Con- 
stantinople, arrived before tliat city (1203), laid siege to 
it and took it ; the usurper fled ; Isaac Angclus was re- 
placed upon the throne. But soon a prince of the house 
o^ Dvcas, called Alexis Di(cas,'di\i\ surnamcd Mnrzulphus, 
on account of his heavy eyebrows, succeeded in destroy- 
ing the prince in the good opinion of the people, and re- 
moving the young Alexis Cermncmis. The Latins besieg- 
ed Constantinople anev/, took it, precipitated the usurp- 
er from the top of a tower, and })laced upon the throne a 
French prince, Baldivin I, count of Flanders, in 1201. 
Tlic Greek empire was thus divided. 

The Vcnitiayis took to themselves the islands near the 
Peloponessus, and some Asiatic isles. 

Boniface, marquis of Montfcnat, took the provinces 
beyond the Bosj^lion/s. 

yilh'ha7'douin, marshall of Champagne, took Greece 
properly so called ; James d' A^vcmie, of Hainault, had the 
iislaiid of Elf hoc a. 

EMPIRE OF THE LATINS. 

There were at that time two christian cjnjnrcs of the 
East, the one in .l?/'7, the other in Europe. 

In Asia, Theodore Lascaris, husband of Ann, the 
daiighter of Alexis III, passed over into Anatolia, and 



How did the son of Isaac avenge his father? 
What did the crusaders do in his behalf? 
What is said of Alexis Ducas ? 
What did the Latins do at Constantinoi)le ? 
How was the Greek empire divided at this time ? 
What two Cliristian empires then existed ? 
What i-? said of Theodore Lascaris? 



148 FIFTH PART. 

caused himself to be acknowledged despolcs (master) ; he 
was proclaimed emperor at Nice. His successors nar- 
rowed the territory of Constantinople, and Michael Pa- 
Iccologus, one of them, possessed himself of the empire in 
1261. Trchizond was, until 1462, the seat of a Greek 
empire. Mahojnet, emperor of the Turks, who was then 
upon the throne of Constantinople, brought out before the 
public in that city David Comncnus, their sovereign, and 
put him to death. Descendants of the family of the Coin- 
neni still exist in France and England. 

In Europe Baldwin I was appointed emperor on the 
16^^^- of May, 1204, and was taken by the Bvlgarians, who 
cut off his legs and arms and delivered him to wild beasts. 
He reigned two years (1206). 

Henry, his brother, succeeded him. He made war 
with success against the Bulgarians; he was recognized 
as emperor by Theodore Lascaris. 

He was followed by Peter of Courtenay^ count of Aux- 
erre, brother-in-law o^ Ilmry, and grandson of Louis the 
Gross ; Theodore, prince of Eplrus, made him prisoner, 
and put him to death at the close of two years. Yoland, 
his wife, governed wisely in his place (1216-1221). 

Robert, son of Peter, a feeble, indolent prince, suffered 
the two Greek empires of Trebizond and Thessalonica to 
be taken from him (1221-1228). 

Baldwin II, son of Peter de Courtenay, was under 
the tutelage of John de Bricnne, king of Jerusalem. 
At the death of that prince Baldwin had to combat tho 
Greeks of Nice, who, under the emperor Michael, pos- 
sessed themselves of Constantinople on the 25'^ of July, 



What is said of his successors? 
Who got possession of tlie empire in 1261 ? 
What city was the seat of the empire until 1462 ? 
How did Mahomet treat its last sovereign ? 
What is said of Baldwin I ?— Of Henry>— Of Peter of Cour- 
tenay and Yoland?— Of Robert ?~Of Baldwin 11? 



HISTOIviCAL SKETCHES. 140 

1261. Baldwin fled in disguise, and landed in Italv, 
where he died in 1273. 

fSecoud Oreek Empire. 

THE PAL.EOLOGI. 

Repeated concussions had shaken the Greek empire to 
its very foundations. The Ottoman sultans, who suc- 
ceeded about the year 1300 in forming for themselves a 
petty state in Asia Minor, profited by the troubles of 
Constantinople, and established themselves in Thrace in 
1362. John II Faheolagus was vanquished at Varna on 
the 10'^- of November, 1444, by the sultan Amurath 11. 

It is in this famous battle that Ladislas, the king of 
Poland and Hungary, was conquered and slain. Amu- 
rath caused his head to be put in a vessel filled with 
lioney, and sent it to Prussia. It is said that he caused 
his hand to be cut off in order to punish him for having 
signed a treaty which he had not the honesty to regard. 

The Turks continued to march from one victory to 
another. Finally, on the 29^^- of May, 1453, the sultan, 
Alahomct 11^ laid siege to Constantinople, took it, and 
established there the seat of the Turkish empire. This 
revolution put an end to the Greek empire, called also 
the Lower emjnre. 

Gonstantine, surnamed Dragases, the last emperor, 
perished in the breach, with arms in his hands. 

The fall of Constantinople shed terror among the 
Christian nations. The pope, Pius II, spoke eloquently 

What was the consequences of the agitations of the Greek 
empire ? — Where was John II PalaGologus vanquished ? 

What was the fate of Ladislas ? — Who was he? 

Under whom and when did the Turks capture Constanti- 
nople ? — What was the fate of Dragases ? 

How did the fall of Constantinople aflecl the minds of Chris- 
tendom ? 



150 FITTII TART. 

in favor of ihc faith find the civilization wliich had pe- 
rished in the East; Lut policy froze the hearts of the 
European princes, and the West permitted Asiatic bar- 
barians to seat themselves upon the throne of the Ccisars, 

REMARKS ON THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 

The empire of tlie East was destroyed 2200 years 
after the foundation of Rome, 1124 years after the trans- 
lation of the seat of the Roman empire to Byzantium, 
10S9 years after the first, and 105S years after the second 
division of that empire. 

It has been remarked that the Iioma?i enipirc, founded 
hy Azigustus^ was overturned under aii Augustus; that 
of Constantinople, begun by Constantine, was destroyed 
under a Gonstantine ; and that of Trcbizond, founded by 
David Comnenus, was overthrown under a David of the 
same family. 



• Secondary IVatious of Aiiciesit History. 

IN ASIA. 

The Anneniaiis, between tlie Ponlus-Euxinus and the 
Caspian sea, to the north of Mesopotamia. Their capital 
was Tigranoccrtes. The Armenians give themselves the 
name of Haikans, after one of their fabulous kings, a great 
grandson of Japhct. Their origin and history are little 

Can you tell how long the destruction of the Eastern empire 
was after the foundation of Rome ? — The translation of the 
ecot of the empire to Byzantium ? — The first and second divi- 
eions of the empire ? 

What remarkable coincidences does the history of the em- 
pire present ? 

Where were the Armenians anciently situated ? 

What was the name of their capital ? 

What did they call themselves, and why ? 



IIISTCKICAL .SKETCHES. .J^l 

kuovvi). They had many kings, among whom Tigranes 
is distinguished ; that prince leagued himself with Mitli- 
ridates, king of Pontus, against the Romans, who defeated 
him (I ccJitury of J. C). Their country is at the present 
day divided between the Turks and the Persians. The 
Armenians are traders, and are scattered through all the 
provinces of the Ottoman empire. 

Th.e Ci'ippadocianSy at the eastern extremity of Asia 
!!\lirjor. They weit3 bounded on the north by Pontus, on 
the south by Cilicia, on the west by Phrygia, and on the 
oast by Arnicriia. Their capital was Ca^sarea. 

The Cappadocian3 were subdued by the Lydians ; 
afterward by Cyrus, king of Persia, wlio gave them a 
king (VI century). TAia government continued to be 
monarchical until the I century, when they v,-cre subdued 
by the Romans. At prcsont Cappadocia niakes a part oi 
th<3 Turkish empire. 

The Pontmes^ in tlie northern })tirt of Asia i\Iinor, 
eouth of the Pontus-Eiixinus and north of Cappadocia^ 
Their principal cities were AmasocKs, Nco-CcEnarla, and 
Trapazus. The Poiitines had th.eir own kings, among 
whiJiT] we I'omark 3>i'U?tri dates, who opposed the Romans 
during forty years. Pontus became a Roman province. 
It forms at present a part of Turkey in Asia. 

The Bithitfilans, m ihe northern part of Asia Minor, 
soutii of Pontus-Euxinus, north of Phiygia, east of the 
Propontis (sea of Marmora), and v/est of Paphlagonia. 
Principal cities : Nice, NicoJcnui, Prusa, and Chalcedon., 
The first king of the Bithynians, Nicomedcs Til, was de- 
prived of his possessions by Mithridates, king of Pontus- 
Pompey re-established him. Nicomedes, at his death, 

Wlio was the most distinguished among their kings ? 
What is said of him? — How is Armenia at present divided ? 
What is trie present state of the Armenians? 
What is said of the Cappadccians ?~0f the Pontines ?— 
The Bithynians ? 



152 FIFTH PART. 

bequeathed his dominions to the Romans. It was at Ly- 
bissa, in Bilhynia, that Hannibal died. 

The Pergauiotes, to the north-west of Asia Minor, in 
^lysia. Pergamus fell to the portion of Lysimachus, one 
of the lieutenants of Alexander. After Lysimachus she 
had three kings of her own, among whom we remark 
Attains III, who, having no children, made the Romans 
his heirs. 

The Lydlans, in the westera part of Asia Minor, south 
of Mysia, north of Caria, and west of Phrygia. Prin- 
cipal cities : Sardis and EpJicsus. The Lydians were 
governed successively by three families : the Atyades, 
the Heraclides, and the Mermnades, until Croesus, who 
was vanquished by Cyrus (VI century). The kingdom 
was then destroyed, and passed successively under the 
dominion of the Persians, the Macedonians, the Syrians, 
and the Romans. At present Lydia makes a part of 
Turkey in Asia. 

The Carians, in the south-western part of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by Lydia, on the west by tlie 
./?i]gean sea (Archipelago), on the south by the Medi- 
terranean, and on the east by Lycia. Principal cities : 
Halicarnassus, Miletus, Gnidiis. The Carians were go- 
verned by twenty-six kings, the most celebrated of whom 
was Mausolus, the husband of Artemisia. Caria forms at 
present a part of Turkey in Asia. 

The Phrygians, at the centre of Asia Minor, bounded 
on the north by Bithynia and Galatia, on the south by 
Lycia and Pysidia, on the east by Cappadocia. Principal 
cities : Hieropolis, Apomea, and Laodicea. The Phry- 
gians were at first governed by kings of their own, and 
afterward fell successively under the dominion of the 



What is said of the Pergamotes ? 

Can you js^ive the history of the Lydians?— The Carians ? — 
The Phrygians ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 153 

Persians, Macedonians, and Romans. At present Phry- 
gia forms a part of Turkey in Asia. 

IN EUROPE. 

The EpirotcSf on the shore of the Adriatic sea, west 
of Macedonia and Thessaly. Pyrrhus, who made war 
against the Romans with success, was one of their most 
celebrated kings (II century j. They were subdued by 
the Romans under Paulus ^milius. Afterward the Ve- 
netians held possession'of Epirus until the XV century, 
when it submitted to tlie yoke of the Turks. 

The Thessalians. It was from Tkessalij, situated to the 
north of Greece, that the Hellenes went forth to spread 
themselves through the whole of that country ; at the 
epoch of the Trojan war it contained ten petty kingdoms, 
of which the greater part belonged to the most renowned 
heroes of that age, such as Achilles and Philoctetes. The 
Thessalians were not skillful enough to preserve for any 
length of time their political liberty. Larissa and Phcres 
■were their principal cities. 

At Larissa, the Aleuladiau family, which claimed to 
have descended from Hercules, maintained its dominion 
until the age of Alexander. 

At Phercs there rose in the V century (40S) a tyrant 
called Jason, Avho extended his dominion to a consider- 
able distance. One of his brothers, Alexander, was con- 
quered by Pelopidas, and assassinated (in 34G), at the 
instigation of his wife, Thebe, by his brothers hycopJircn 
and Tisiphomus. These last were driven out by Philip, 
king of Macedonia. Afterward Thessaly followed the 
fate of Greece. 

The Etolians. The EtoUans, situated to the west of 
Greece, were gross and barbarous ; they carried on their 

Can you repeat the history of the Epirotes ? — The Thessa- 
lians ? — The Etolians ? 

7* 



154 FIFTH PART. 

robberies by land and sea. Among them Pencnus, Melea- 
ger, and Diomcncs, are celebrated. This people long 
resisted the Macedonians and the Romans ; they formed 
a league which became formidable to the Achceans. They 
were at length subdued by the Romans, like the other 
nations of Greece. 

The Phocians. The Phociaus, at the centre of Greece 
proper, were descended from Phocus, the chief of a Co- 
rinthian colony. They were at first governed by kings, 
and afterward constituted themselves into a sort of re- 
public, the form of which is not known. The city of 
Bressa formed a small independent state. The Amphic- 
tJjons declared war with the Phocians on account of their 
outrages u^oxi the temple of Delphi ^ it was terminated 
ten years afterward by the interposition of Philip, king 
of Macedonia ; this is what was called the sacred war. 

The Boeotians. With the ancient colonies of Bceotia, 
situated to the north of Attica, the Pheniciaiis led into 
Greece by Cadvius were mingled. The family of that 
hero reigned there for a long time, and the history of the 
kings of Thebes is one of the branches of the Greek 
Mythology. The monarchical form of government was 
abolished in Bceotia (about 1126) in the XII century, at 
the death of X:iith2is. Afterward, each city of that pro- 
vince formed a state ; a circumstance which gave rise to 
a league in which Thebes was included. Eleven magis- 
trates, called hcBOtarchi, were at the head of the confede- 
ration. Many wars took place between these petty re- 
publics; they frequently united against that of Thebes, 
which excited their jealousy. Epa?mnondas and Pelopi- 
das brought their country out of obscurity, but she sunk 
back to it again after their death (IV century). 

The Corinthians. The house of Si/siphus reigned dur- 



Can you repeat the history of the Phocians ?— Of the Boec- 

llans ?— Of the Corinthians ? 



ii!Stok:cal sketches. 155 

ing a long Lime over Corinth, a city situated at the north- 
cast of the Pdoponessus. The Dorians put an end to 
Iheir dominion by the conquest which they made of that 
city. Two families of the race of Hercides afterward oc- 
cupied the throne. Every year, after the VIII century, 
a prijlanis or supreme magistrate v^as chosen, until the 
VII centuiy, when Cypcllus became master of the coun- 
try. In 557 Pcriandcr, his son, rendered himself odious 
by liis avarice and cruelty. The C'jrintkia?is, weary 
of tlie tyranny of iheir leaders, freed themselves from 
their yoke in 581. The citizens of Corinth were tlie 
richest traders in Greece. The situation of their city 
was vcjy favorable to tlrom; they had numerous colonics. 
These were, at the v/est, Corcyra^ Epijdamjiiis, Lcucas, 
Sj/raeusc ; and to the east, PoiiJcea. The magnihcence 
and dissoluteness of the Corinthians were carried to the 
liighest degree; it was necessary to be rich in order to 
participate in their feasts and pleasures ; a fact which 
gave rise to that proverb: " Al! the world is not permit- 
ted to go to Corinth'' 

Mu7}iniius, the Roman consul, pillaged this city, and 
almost entirely destroyed it 14G years before J. C. ; but 
Julius Ccesar sent thither a colony, and made every e.Tort 
in his power to raise it again from its ruins, and to re- 
store it to its former splendor. 

Achoians. Achaia, situated at tlie north of the Pelo- 
ponessus, was at first known unJer the name of jEgia- 
h'us. The loniaiis reigned there until the Aclurcuis, dri- 
ven from Argos by the Dorians, drove them back in their 
turn, and established themselves in the country under 
Tijsamcncs, the son of Orestes. The last of the succes- 
gora of that prince was called thjges ; his cruelty was 
the cause of the abolition of monarchical power. The 
twelve cities of Achaia then formed a confederation, but 

AVhat is said of the Achaean*? 



156 FIFTH PART. 

they were subdued by the kings of Macedonia, succes- 
sors of Alexander the Great. In 281 before J. C, having 
expelled their tyrants, they formed anew a celebrated 
league, into which several nations of the Peloponessus 
entered, and which rendered itself formidable during 135 
years. Among the great men who were at the head of 
the Achaean league, we shall mention only Aratus and 
PhilojyGBnien. The league fought for tlie independence 
of Greece, threatened by the Romans ; but it was de- 
stroyed by the consul Muinmius, in the year 146. 

Mcssenians. The Messcnians inhabited the finest 
country of Greece; they owed their celebrity to three 
bloody struggles which tbcy sustained against the Spar- 
tans, their neighbors ; the issue of these wars was unfor- 
tunate for them. Some of them were reduced to slavery 
and confounded with the Helots ; others quitted Pelopo- 
nessus and retired into Sicily, where they founded the 
city of Messina, formerly Zancle. 

The Cretes, m the island of Crete, south east of the 
Peloponessus, in Europe. Principal cities, Gortyrta, 
dfdoyda and Gnossas. They were at first governed by 
kings, among whom v/e notice Minos, their lawgiver, 
(XV century before Jesus Christ) ; afterward they con- 
stituted themselves a republic, until their subjugation by 
the Romans. They passed successively under the do- 
minion of the emperors of the East (IV century), the 
Arabs (IX century), the Genoese (X century), the Veni- 
tians (XIII century), and the Turks, to whom they are 
still subject. 

The Syracusans, in Europe, occupied the south-east- 
ern part of Sicily. Capital, Syracuse. The government of 
Syracuse was by turns republican and tyrannical ; among 
her kings, we shall cite Dionysius the Tyrant, and Diony- 



What is said of ihe Mcssenians ?— The Cretes ?~The Svra- 

anna 7 ^ 



cusans ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 15'7 

sius the Younger, The Athenians laid siege to that city 
(V century). The Romans took it two centuries after- 
ward and retained it until he invasion of the Barbarians. 
Syracuse belongs at present to the- king of the Two Sici- 
lies. 

The Caledonians in North Britain were of Celtic ori- 
gin; their manners were barbarous; they were beaten by 
the Roman general Agricola, and afterward by the empe- 
ror Severus (III century), who caused a famous wall to 
be built between Scotland and England; some vestiges 
of it still remain. 

The Bntons were likewise of Celtic origin ; they go- 
verned themselves by their own laws until the conquest 
of their southern coasts by Julius Caesar (55 years before 
J. C.) A century later, under the emperor Domitian. 
Agricola got possession of their whole island, and, under 
Constantius Chlorus or the Pale (III century), Britain 
became a Roman province. In the V century, when the 
harharians invaded the empire of the West, the Romans 
withdrew their garrison from Britain. Desolated by the 
excursions of the Caledonians, the Britons called to their 
aid the Angles and the Saxons, German nations, and were 
subdued by their defenders. Some withdrev/ into the 
principality of Wales, others into Armoric Gaul, which at 
the present day is called Bretagne. 

The Germans, or Alemanni nations of central Eu- 
rope, warlike, simple, but obdurate and sanguinary. At- 
tacked almost continually by the Romans during two cen- 
turies and a lialf, and never subdued, they attacked thera 
in their turn, and defeated them under the emperor Au- 
gustus ; conducted by Arminius, ihey threw themselves 
in hordes upon the provinces of the western empire, and 
there established themselves. The greater part of the 

What is said of the Caledonians?— The Britcns?— The Ger- 
mans ? 



158 FIFTH rAIlT. 

nations of modern Europe descended ft-om these formid- 
able people. At the present day we denominate Ger- 
mans in general the nations v,'hicb occupy the country 
of Germany. 

The Gauls, of Celtic origin, to the west of Europe, 
-»vore warlike and enterprising. From the VI century 
before J. C. they made five iniporta]it expeditions. 

The first, under tlie command of Bdloveaus ; they pass- 
c.l the Alps and set about founding a colony in the north 
of Italy. They built there Milan, Cremona, Fadiui, &:c. 
{Vi century before J. C). 

The second, under Sigocesus, at the same epoch ; they 
traversed tho llyrcinlan forest, and founded a colony in 
the centre of Germany, in Bohemia and Pannonia. 

The third, under the command of Brcnnus I, a descen- 
dant of Bcllovesus : they vanquislicd the Romans on the 
l>anks of the Allia, took Rome, and, after a sojourn of 
some months, burnt it. They were repulsed by the Ro- 
man general Camillas (IV century). 

The foLUth, under the command of Belgius and Brcimus 
II; they ravaged Macedonia and Thrace, and advanced 
a > far as Greece in order to pillage the temple of Delphos. 
This expedition was unfortunate (III century). 

The fifth, in the III century; they founded a colony in 
Asia Minor, where" they had been to place Nicomedes 
upon the throne of Bithynia. Galatia or Gallo-Greria 
became their residence. 

Finally, these fcjrmidable nations were subdued by Juli- 
us Ctesar, who reduced the whole of Gaul under the Romnn 
dominion. In the V century after J. C. Gaul was invaded 
by the Franks, the Burgundians and the Visigoths, and thus 
was formed the kingdom of France, under Clovis I (481). 



What character is given cftiiu Gauls? 

What five important ex{>editions did ihey mrike ? 

By what invasions v^'as tlie kingdom of France fovmcd.'i 



KISTGKICAL SKETCHES. 139 

The Iberians or Ili^pajiians (Spariish) were in part of 
Phenician origin. They were successively subdued by 
the Carthaginians and the Romans, and their country wa^ 
the theatre of long and terrible wars between those two 
nations in the V century. Spain was invaded by the 
Sucvi, the Alani, tlie Vandals, and the Visigoths. These 
last established themselves there definitively, forming the 
Visigothic kingdom. 

IN ITALY. 

The Etruscans have been cited as the most aiicicnt 
people of Europe; their origin is unceitain and their 
history little knov/u. They bore successively the name 
of Tyrrhcni and Pclasgi, which the Greeks gave them ; 
the Romans called them T/iuscl (from thus, god or in- 
cense), on account of their attachment to the wor^^hip of 
the gods; from this name that of the Etruscans has been 
formed. Their taste for the arts has rendered them cele- 
brated. Their country was divided into twelve states, 
each of which had a prince called lucunio. Among those 
states the Veil and the FaHscl were distinguished. The 
Romans, who borrowed a great deal from the Etruscans in 
the arts, the sciences, military tactics and leligioue cere- 
monies, subdued ihem and sent into their country a great 
number of colonies. 

The Latins inliabitcd Lutium; they called themselves 
aborigines, that is, originating in the place where they 
dwelt. They had many wars to maintiiin against the Ro- 
mans, who, after having defeated them several limes, par- 
ticularly near the lake Regilhis, in the V century before 
Jesus Christ (498), subdued them entirely in the JV cen- 
tury (340), and conferred on them the right of the citv, 



What account Is given of the Iberians? — Etruscans? — L 
tins? 



ICO FIFTH PAKT. 

by the Julian late, in the I century (90). The principal 
Latin nations were the Volsci, the Equi and the Rutuli. 

The Salines were the most ancient people of Italy ; 
they are thought to have boon originally from the Pelo- 
poncssiis ; they were already powerful at the epoch of 
the foundation of Rome. The Romans having taken from 
tliem their wives arid daughter:^, ihey penetrated into 
Rome itself in pursuit of them ; they consented to a 
treaty, and incorporated themselves with the Romans, 
who completely subdued them in the IV century. 

The Samnitcs descended from the Salines. Formi- 
dable enemies of the Romans, whom they caused to pass 
under the yoke at FurccE Caudlnxt ; they were subdued 
by that people in the 111 century, after long and bloody 
v/ars. 

The Tarcrdines, a powerful nation, but too celebrated 
for their effeminacy, their luxury and evil manners, were 
at first governed by kings, and afterwai'd farmed them- 
selves into a republic. Having provoked the vengeance 
of the Romans, they called to their assistance Pyrrhuf;, 
king of Epirus, the greatest captain of his age (III cen- 
tury) ; aft :r some successes they v/ere subdued ; they 
Boon revolted and took the part of Hannibal ; but on the 
retreat of that great general they returned permanently 
under tl;c yoke of the Romans. 

IN AFRICA. 

The Moors, inhabitants of Mauritania, a Nojmidic peo- 
ple, whose history is little known ; they placed thcm- 
Bclves imder the protection of the Romans. Octavius 
reduced their country to a Roman province, and laid it 



What ia said of the Sahines ?— The Samnites ?~The Ta- 
rentiucs ?— The Moors ? 



IIISTOiSlCAL SKETCHES. 161 

waste ; he gave them Juba for their king, whose son Plo- 
lemy, the emperor Caligula caused to be assassinated (I 
century). The Moors then took up arms, having at their 
head a freed man of Ptolemy • but they succumbed once 
more, and became subject to the Roman people. 

The Numidians were nomades ; their frugality and 
their address are well known, and they were excellent 
cavaliers. They were unknown to the Romans until the 
eecond Punic war. They were then governed by Massi- 
nissa, who took part with the Romans. Jugurtha, ne- 
phjw of that prince, after a bloody war was carried pri- 
soner to Rome ; and in the I century Numidia was re- 
duced to a Roman province. After the invasion of the 
barbarians this country passed successively to the Van- 
dalSf the Arabs, and finally to the Turks, who possessed 
it only in name. It is at present the kingdom of Algiers. 

NATIONS WHICH INVADED THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

Tho Burgundians, under the conduct of Gundicaire, 
travcr:ed Germany and settled in the western part of 
Gaul. They were governed by dukes until Charles the 
Rash, after whose death Burgundy, as a male fief, w^as 
united to the crown of France by Louis XI (XV cen- 
tury). The other part of their country passed under the 
dominion of Austria. 

The Sucvi, under Hermanric their cliiof, traversed 
Gei-npny and Gaul, and at length established themselves 
in Spain, where they were conquered by the Visigoths 
(VI century). 

Tiie Vandals, conducted by Gcnseric, traversed Ger- 
many and united with the Suevi; they laid waste Gaul 
and Spain, in the southern part of which they established 



What account is ^iven of (he Numidians ? — The Rui 
dians ?— The Suevi?— The Vandals ? 



162 FIFTH PART. 

ihcmsch^cs, aftcrwaiil, at the approach .of the Visi- 
goths, ihey passed into AlVioa, and fuunJed a kingdom 
upon the luins of Carthago. They were conquered by 
Eelisarius, general of Justinian (VI century). 

Tlie Aldiii, under their chief Gonderic, traversed Pan- 
iionia (Hungary), Germany and Gaul, and settled in 
Spain, where they were defeated by the Visigoths ( V 
century). 

The Franks were aji independent association of Ger- 
man nations, among whom we notice in particular the 
Sicumhri. They passed the Rhine under Pharamond 
their cliicf, established themselves in the north of Gaul, 
gradually spread themselves through the country, and 
finally got possession of the whole region, to which they 
gave the name of Fraficc. 

The Angles and the Saxons, who had for their leaders 
Hcngist and Ilorsa, were invited into Great Britain by- 
its inhabitants, in order that they might defend them 
against the incursions of the Picts and Caledonians. Af- 
ter having drivoji out those barbarians, they possessed 
themselves of Britain, and founded there seven govern- 
ments under tlie name of the heptarcliy. 

The Huns, who had at their head Attila, advanced as 
far as Pannonia. They afterward invaded Gaul, where 
they were defeated at Chalons-sur-Marne, by Actius, a 
Rv)mun general, seconded by the Franks under the con- 
duct of P'lerova^us, and by Theodoric, king cf the Visi- 
goths. After this terrible defeat Attila went to ravage 
Italy; at his approach the Venedes fled into the lagoons 
of the Adriatic sea, and there founded Venice. The dealli 
cf Attila gave rise to discords which rent asunder the em- 
pire of the Huns. Some of tlicni established themselves in 
Pannonia (Hungary), others peopled Poland and Russia. 



What is the historv of the Alanli—The Franks ?~-Thc 
Angles and Sn^ons ? — The Ihjn? ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 163* 

The IleruU \vdd for llicir chief Odoacer. They settled 
ill Italy, and drove from tlic imperial throne Romulus 
Augustulus (V century) ; but they were themselves van- 
quished or driven out by the Ostrogoths. 

The Goths, the most formidable of the German nations, 
liad for their chief Hermanric (V century); they were 
divided into Visigoths (Goths of the west), and Ostro- 
goths {Goths of the east). 

The Visigoths, with Alaric at their head, traversed 
(Trcece, passed into Italy, and took Rome twice, whicli 
they sacked. They established themselves in the south 
of Gaul, from which tliey were driven : they passed over 
into Spain, where they subdued the Alani, the Sucvi and 
the Vandals. The Visigothic kings governed Spain until 
the VIII century, when Pelagius, their last king, was 
driven from it by the Moors. He retired into the Austu- 
rias, where he founded a kingdom. 

The Ostrogoths, who had for their chief Theodoric, 
came into Italy and conquered the Ileruli ; but they 
were soon themselves driven out by the Lombards. This 
^vas the first of the German nations which embraced the 
christian religion. 

The Lombards, under their chief Alboin, established 
themselves iu the north of Italy, from which they had dri- 
ven the Ostrogoths. This kingdom was destroyed by 
Charlemagne, after the defeat of Didier, their last king 
(Vill century) ; it had lasted two centuries. 

The Avars, leaving the shores of the Caspian sea, came 
to disturb the emperors of Constantinople, who granted 
them the second Pannonia. Scarcely settled there, they 
ravaged Thrace, and forced the emperors of the east to- 
pay them tribute. 

The Bulgariiuts, of Scytliian origin, succeeded the 



What account is ^ivcn cfthe Ilcruli ? — Gotlis ? — Visigoths? 
■ Ostrogoths ?— Lombards ?— Avai'^ ?~Bulgarians? 



164 - FIFTH PART. 

Avars on the banks of the Danube, in the XVII century, 
and were subdivided into Croats, Moravians, Walla- 
chians, and Bulgarians properly so called. 

The GcpidiB came from Sweden, as well as the A^isi- 
goths and Ostrogoths, from whom they separated on 
their arrival in Germany. According to some authori? 
the word gcpidcb signifies indolent. 

Th.c Vaiedes and the Slavojiians lived near the Baltic 
sea, about the mouth of the Vistula. 

The Danes and the Norma?is, people of northern Eu- 
rope, during the middle age rendered themselves formi- 
dable to all nations. They made conquests in France, 
where they settled in the X century : in England, over 
which they reigned in the XI century ; and in the king- 
dom of Naples and Sicily, of which they also occupied 
the throne (XII century). The general name of the Nor- 
mans is lost; but that of the Danes and the Swedes has 
become illustrious. 

OTHER BARBAROUS NATIONS. 

The Hungarians (IX century). After many incur- 
sions they fixed themselves in Pannonia, and chose a 
king called Stephen (X century). 

The Moguls (XIII century) were Tartar nations who, 
under Ghengis khan and his successors, conquered Chi- 
na, Thibet, Arabia, and even Russia. Their immense 
empire shone for several ages, and was annihilated in the 
XVI century; an epoch at which the Moguls became 
subjects of the Tartar Mantchous, who reign at present 
in China. 

The Turks. They left the east of the Caspian sea, in 
Asia Minor, under the conduct of Othman (XIV cen- 



V/hat is said of the Oepidjc ? — Venctles and Slavonians ?- 
Danes and Normans ? — llunpraria:^? ?-— Mogids ?~Turks ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 165 

tury), and from thence passed into Europe, where they 
possessed themselves of Constantinople, under Mahomet 
II (XV century). 

[ft would be a most useful exercise for tlie pupil to make a particu- 
lar map of the emigration of those barbarous nations who invaded the Ro- 
man empire. Points differoiitly colored may denote their line of march 
and place of settlement.] 



IlMtory of the Middle Age. 

POPES. 

From the time v/hen Christianity was first established, 
the christians formed assemblies called ccclcsicp. (churches). 
The churches, gradually enlarging, and divided in the 
course of time into small portions, had pastors for tho 
heads of each of these divisions ; a bishop was soon ap- 
pointed to watch over the pastors or patriarchs ; the arch- 
bishops not long afterwards had under their direction a 
certain number of bishops. 

But from the fourth or fifth century, the head of all 
cliristendom, he who claimed to have succeeded to Saint 
Peter, and who received distinctly the name of pope, was 
always settled in Rome. That city had passed succes- 
sively to the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, and the Greeks : 
under the latter Rome revolted, and formed at that time, 
with the territory which surrounded it, a sort of free state. 
It maintained itself under the Lombards, and these last. 



What account is given of (he early polity of the church ? 
What was the civil state of Rome during this perio<l ? 



1C6 riiTii PAiiT. 

liavliig attcmptc-J to rob the popes of thoir prerogatives, 
beheld Tcpin marching against tliem, and afterwards bis 
bon CharleinagMC, who destroyed their power (747). 

The pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of 
tbe West (800), and the latter, in recompense, gave to 
the holy see Rome and its depcnilencics, still reserving 
to himself a riglit of suzerainty* as emperor (IX century). 

It was at this epoch that the pope became truly an 
European sovereign. In the XI century the fami;u3 
Gregory VIT -(1073) cnfi-anchiscd Home from ali tribute 
of homage, and rendered the holy see altogelher inde- 
pendent of the em}>crors. The papal territory was en- 
larged by several provij;ces v;hich were snccessively 
united with it. 

We notice in the lii^tory of iliC Romaii Churcli : 

1. The patronage of Constant ine and his successors, 
during which the church reposed, ilourished, and became 
i-ccuhr. 

2. Tlic quarrel about Ini:c&titvr€s, under Gregory YII 
(XI century), ^vhlcll lasted many centuries : this is what 
is called also the war of the priesthood, or of ihc Gue'phs 
and Ghibellines. 

3. The im[)oriant donations to the holy sec by tbe prin- 
cess Matilda (XII century). 

4. The crusades, from the XI century to tbe end of 
the XIII. 



Who defended the papacy against die Lombards ? 
What is related of Leo lid, and Charlemagne ? 
When and liow did the pope become an European sovereign ? 
How was the papal territory enlarged ? 

What arc the leading events in the history of the church of 
Rome ? 

* Tl totni snzerainfy, which is froqucnUy met with izi tbe bistoiy of 
the muld'.e age, dilTcrs from sovcreig-nty, which is often used as its equiv- 
alent, in tliis : that the suicrain was not always a monarch or fdng, but j 
any hr-i or sn'^nia/r to whom feutlal service waa due. j 



HIoTOiaCAL SKETCHES. 1G7 

5. The translation of the pontifical see to Avignon, (lur- 
ing 70 years. This is what is called the capti%-ity of the 
church, from Clement V to Gregory XI (XIV cciitu'-y). 

6. The schiarn of the West (IX and X century) under 
Photiaa and Michael Ccrularius, patriarchs of Constanti- 
nople. 

7. The pontificalc of Leo X, of the family of the Medici 
(XVl century), under whom the reformation of Luther 
took place, which entirely changed the flice of Christen- 
dom. Leo was a patron of the arts and sciences. 

8. The separation of England from the papacy umlor 
Clement Vil (X\T century). Henry VIII, king of Eng- 
land, detached his subjects from the church of Rome. 

9. The loss of the county Vcnalssin, taken from tho 
pope hy tlie Frcncli revolution, ir.uler Pius W (X\^IiI 
century). 

10. The invDsion of Koino by the French, and the trans- 
ffjrmation of the stales of the church into a republic. 
I'ius VI was con iuclcd to France, where he died at Va- 
l3i!lia, in 17i)9 (XVIII century.) 

11. The conquest of tbo rest of ihe states of the church 
by Napoleon in IS 10, who formed out of them the de- 
partments of Rome and Trasimene. The pope Pius VII 
was carried into France, ^vhere he remained till 18 14-, 
when he returned to Rome. 

13. The restitution of the states of the church to tho 
Lols' see bv the concrrcss of Vienna in 1S15, with the 
exception of the county Venaissin, wliich reraainetl sul> 
iect to France. Pius IX is at present (1S17) on the pon- 
tifical throne ; t'le commeiicement of his pontificate ha.s 
been distinguished by the adoption of liberal prijiciplo.s. 

THE rr.EXCH. 

The French, a mixture of Celts, Gauls, Burgundians, 



From who.m were the French deriveil ? 



168 FIFTH PAllT. 

Franks, and Visigoths, hati at the outset chiefs whose his- 
tory is almost unknown ; Pharamoncl, Clodion, Mero- 
vaeus, the latter remarkable by his victory over Attila, 
king of the Huns, near Chalons-sur-Marne, and Childeric ; 
but the French acknowledge for the founder of their 
monarchy Clovis I (481), who extingushed the Roman 
power and name in Gaul ; he then became master of the 
whole of that country, with the exception of what the 
Burgundians occupied at the east and the Visigoths at the 
south. 

We shall divide the history of France into two great ra- 
ces : first, the conquering race; secondly, the national race. 

The conqiier'mg race, that is to say, the race of Frank 
leaders who subdued Gaul, is divided into two parts : 
first, the conquering race of the Mcro-Wtjigs or Mero- 
vingians; secondly, the conquering race of the Karolins, 
which we call Carlovingians. 

The national race, that is to say, the race of Frank 
kings placed upon the throne by the choice of the nation, 
is called the dynasty of the Ca2^ctia?is. 

MEROVINGIANS. 

Under the Merovingians, we remark, during the reign 
of eighteen kings, and during nearly three centuries 
from 481 to 752, four principal events : 

First, the cstahlishment of Christianity in France un- 
der Clovis. 

Secondly, the introduction of the custom of dividing 
the monarchy among the male children of the sovereign, 

Who are distinguished among iheir earl3'' chiefs ? 
Who was the founder of their monarchy? 
Into how many races may the French be divided ? 
IIow is the conquering race subdivided? 
Why is the national race so called ? 

What were the duration and numbers of the Merovingian 
kings? — What are the principal events under that dynasty? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 169 

a natural division, which still was a source of discord 
among the brothers, and of misfortune for the people. 
But these dismemberments of the empire had not at that 
time the character of political acts ; for they did not take 
place absolutely, except with regard to personal pro- 
perty, moveable or immoveable. They occurred three 
times : at the death of Clovis (fill), when the monarchy 
v/as divided into the four kingdoms of Orleans, Paris, 
Soissons and Jiete; at the death of Clotaire I (561), 
when it was again divided into four kingdoms ; and at the 
death of Dagobert, in (658), when it was divided into Aus- 
trasia and Neustria. 

The eastern or Austrasian Franks were called the 
Ripuar'ii, because they were settled upon the banks 
(Ripce) of the Meuse and the Rhine. 

The Salian or ivestern Franks were called Salii, be- 
cause they came from the borders of the river Sala. 
The Ripuarians and the Salians^ although having the 
same origin, were not confounded together ; they were 
even rivals, and that rivalry produced civil Wars, which 
were prolonged during the whole of the VII century ; 
until finally, at the commencement of the VIII, a reac- 
tion was brought about by the change of dynasty, which 
transfered the dominion from the Salians to the Ripua- 
rians, the royalty from the Merovingians to the Carlovin- 
gians, and the seat of the Frank kingdom from the banks 
of the Seine to those of the Rhine. 

Thirdly, the rise of xhe power of the mayors of the pa- 
lace, caused by the feebleness of the kings, caWedJaineants 
(do-nothings) : those lords or ministers invaded by de- 

What is said of the dismemberments of the French empire ? 
What were the eastern Franks denominated ? 
What were the western Franks called ? 
What relation did the Ripuarians and Salians sustain to 
each other? — How was their rivalry terminated? 

What gave rise to the power of the mayors of the palace? 
8 



170 rii'Tii rx\KT. 

groes tlio royal authority, and eiuloJ by traiisforlti^ it to 
themselves. 

Fourthly, the \iclorio3 of Charles Martel, Juke of the 
Franks, over the Moors or Arabs, who hat! possessed 
themselves of Spain, and advanced as far ay Tours, 
hoping to conquer France (VIII century). 

Charles beat the Saracens a second time near Nar- 
bonne, and delivered France from them for ever. The 
Frank king, Thierry II, died, and Charles governed alone 
during five years, under the tide of duke of the Franks 
and Austrasians ; this interregnum prepared the way for 
tlie fall of the Salian Franks, which we have just men- 
tioned. 



CAIlLaVIXCIIANS, 

We remark, under fourteen kiiigv-, and during more 
than two centuries, from 752 to 087: 

First, the reign of Pepin, who caused his auth.ority 
to be recognized by the Ic.ndcs or seigneurs, and by tlie 
Roman church ; the latter sanctioned his elevatiori in the 
name of religion, which had sanctioned in like maTiner 
that of Clovis. Thus the ascendancy of this second race 
bore a double character, that of a religious revolution 
and that of a political one. 

Secondly, the celebrated reign of Charlemagne the son 
of Pepin the Short : politician, legislator, warrior, pro- 
tector of letters, lie united under his laws almost the 
Avhole of Europe. He was crowned emperor of the 



Over whom did Charles Martel obtain repeated victories? 

How far into Europe had the Moors advanced ? 

Where were they finally defeated bv Charles ? 

What is said of Charles'after the death of Tliierrv 11? 

What was the eflect of the interregnum ? 

What are the number and duration of the Carlovingians? 

What i3 said of the reign of Pepin ?— Of Charlemagne ? ' 



HISTOniCAL SKETCHES. 171 

West in 800 by the pope Leo III; but his descendants 
were not worthy of him. 

Thirdly, the establishment of feudalism (under Charles 
the Bold), which so elevated the power of the lords 
that they followed the example of the mayors of the 
palace, and seated themselves upon the throne of their 
kings (IX century). 

Fourthly, the loss of the German empire under Charles 
the Simple (912). 

Fifthly, the establishment of the Normans or nations 
of the North, in Norman Neustria, under the feeble 
Charles the Simple (X century). For a long time these 
Scandinavians had ravaged France ; instead of fighting 
them, their retreat was purchased by money; they be- 
came audacious, and RoJh, their chief, caused a French 
})rovince to be given him. 

Sixthly, the royal authority was abased and annihi- 
lated ; IIni;h CajH'f, one of the most powerful vassals, 
mounted the throne in 0S7. But it was not merely the 
power of the lords, on the one hand,, and the feebleness 
of the kings on the other, which caused the fall of the 
Carlovingians ; a national revolution was by slow degrees 
effected in the language and manners of the Franks. In 
the IX century the Roman language, spoken by the peo- 
ple, became a national bond; the Frank dynasty, which 
had preserved the old Teutonic tongue, was regarded as 
foreign. The new French established upon the banks of 
the Seine, on the dissolution of the Western empire 

What resulted from the establishment of feudalism ? 

Undf'r whom was the monarchy of France separated from 
the empire of Germany as held by Charlemagne ? 

When did ihe estabfisinTienl of the Normans take place? 

What rendered ihern audacious? 

What donation was made to Rollo? 

What causes led to the downfal of the royal authority of 
the Carlovingians ? 

What efiect did the fall of the Western empire produce on 
French naiionalitv ? 



i'J^a FIFTH PAUT. 

(888), raised tlielr lieads, and from that time there was 
rivalry between these nationals and the Carlovingians. 
Eudcs and Ilaviil were proclaimed Icings, and soon the 
royalty of the conquest gave place to the royalty of the 
nation. It is from this third revolution that the com- 
mencement of the French 7nonarchy really dates. 

CAPETIANS. 

The third race is divided into three parts : first, the 
Capets ; secondly, the Valois ; thirdly, the Bourbons; it 
reckons thirty-eight kings, and has lasted nearly eight 
centuries and a half. 

Under the Capets we remark : 

First, the estahlishment of the commimcs, or the en- 
franchisement of the people, who were enslaved until this 
epoch; they were able henceforth to defend themselves 
against the Jcvdal tyranny, of which the institution of 
communes diminished the oppression under Louis VI 
(1108). 

Secondly, the crusades, or religious expeditions for de- 
livering the tomb of Jesus Christ, which was fallen 
under the power of the Turks. They hastened the pro- 
gress of the arts and of civilization in Europe, gave a 
new impulse to commerce and navigation, and diminish- 
ed the power of the lords, who still strove to strengthen 
themselves; but they also occasioned great destruction 
of men and money. They commenced under Philip I 
(1095), and ended under Louis IX (1270), who died of 
the plague at Tunis. 

What were the consequences of the rivalry between the 
nationals and the Carlovingians? 

Into how many parts is the third race divided ? 

What are its number and duration ? 

What remarkable events took place under the Capets? 

What was tlie effect of ibc establishment of communes? 

What were the effects of the crusades?— How long did ihev 
last? ^ ^ 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 173 

Thirdly, the conquests of Fhillp Augustus, who de- 
feated the English and Germans at Bouvines, 1214, and 
united to the crown Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Tou- 
raine, &c. 

Fourthly, the estahUs7ime?its, or code of laws of Saint 
Louis, who, seated at the foot of an oak, in the wood of 
Vincennes, rendered justice to his subjects in person. 

Fifthly, the convocation of the States' General, com- 
posed of the clergy, the nobility, and the people, the lat- 
ter of whom were called the third estate. They confirm- 
ed the authority of the king, M'eakened that of the lords, 
and raised the people from their abasement (1302). 

Sixthly, the maintenance of that article of the salic 
law which excluded females from the inheritance of the 
conquered land; it is regarded as a fundamental law of 
the State, by two memorable decisions : first, at the 
death of John I, in favor of Philip V, called the Lojig^ 
against Jane of Navarre, daughter of Louis X (1316); 
secondly, at the death of Charles IV, called the Fair, in 
favor of Philip de -Valois, against Edward III, king of 
England (1328). 

Under the Valois, France was unfortunate externally 
and internally. 

Externally, first, by the wars with England, which 
placed France in peril, under Philip VI, who was con- 
quered at Crecy; under John II, called the Good, who 
was conquered and made prisoner at Poitiers; under 
Charles VI, conquered at Azincourt, and whose wnfe, 
Isabel of Bavaria, sold France to the English, at the trea- 



What were the achievements of Philip Augustus? 
What is said of the Establishments of St. Louis ? 
What were the consequences of convoking the States' Ge- 
neral ? 

By what memorable decisions was the Saliclaw confirmed ? 

What was the state of France under the Valois ? 

What calamities befel France in her wars with the English? 



174 FIFTH PART. 

ty of Troyes (1420) j and under Ciiarlcs Vil, who was 
reduced at the outset to the city of Bourges, but after- 
ward victorious over the English, whom he drove from 
France with the singular assistance of Joan of Arc, an 
enthusiastic young woman of Lorraine. 

Secondly, by the wars of Italy, which were the source 
of the greatest losses in men and money, under Charles 

VIII, who yet conquered the enemy at Parma; under 
Louis XII, conquered at Semiuara and Ccrignoles (king- 
dom of Naples), but conqueror at Aguadcl -dud Rav€?ma ; 
and under Francis I, victorious in the commencement at 
Marignan, but conquered and made prisoner at Pavia 
(1525). 

Thirdly, by the Austr'tati wars under Henry II. Victo- 
rious at first over the Lnperialists at Renti, that king was 
conquered at Saint Quentin by the arms of Philip IT, 
king of Spain, who was leagued with England against 
France. 

Internally, by the civil wars which desolated France dur- 
ing three centuries : firstly, that of Charles the Bad, king 
of Navarre and son-in-law of John the Good, who wished 
to mount the throne ; secondly, that of the peasants 
against the lords, a war called the Jaqacrie ; thirdly, that 
of the Orleans or Armagnac party and the Burgundians, 
rival French factions, under Charles VI ; fourthly, that 
of the Protestants and Catholics, under Francis II, Charles 

IX, and Henry HI; the conspiracy of Amboise, under 
Francis II, and the massacre of the Protestants on Saint 



By what remarkable means v/ere the fortunes of France in 
those wars at length changed ? 

What were her successes and reverses in llie Italian wars ? 
— In the Austrian ? 

How was France aflfected by her civil wars at this time? 

Can you name the parties to these internal lends? 

What deplorable consequences of the contest between Pro- 
testants and Catholics ? 



IirSTpRICAL SKETCHES. 175 

Earthulomevv's day (1572), under Charles IX, were its 
most uiihoppy consequences. 

But the reign of the branch of Valols still offers events 
which in some sort redeem the evils which we have just 
pointed out. 

We remark here : 

First, tlie fixing of the majority of the king to 14 
years of an;e, under Charles V (XIV century) ; 

Sccojidly, certain discoveries which induced a com- 
plete revolution in the liuman mind, such as that of artil- 
lery, under Philip Vf ; printing, under Charles VII; the 
discovery of America, and the passage to the Indies, un- 
der Charles VllI ; and the letter- post, under Louis XI; 

Thirdly, the regeneration of the arts and sciences, 
particularly under Francis I, and the uninterrujited chain 
of French writers, beginning from that time. 

The Bourbons. This family is the most ancient of Eu- 
rope ; it reigns over many countries, and presents the 
greatest, and the i>est sovereign of France, Henry IV ! 
For the 218 years that it has occupied the throne of 
France, glorious events have been mingled with fearful 
reverses, arid a terrible catastrophe has just given to the 
world a grand example of the frailty of human greatness, 
as well as of the crimes which may be produced by a 
rcvohitit)!*, whatever be the happy consequences which 
are to spring from it. We shall only cast a glance at the 
kin'j;s of this bran<jh. We notice here: 

First, Henry IV (loSO), the father of his people: he 
introduced order and economy into the finances, in con- 
cert with Sully, a minister worthy of himself; at the mo- 
ment when he was preparing to humble the house of 
Austria he was assassinated by a monster called Ravail- 
lac (ICIO), 

Wliat are some of the redeeming features of this period and 
dvnristy? — What is said of the Ecurbcnft ? 
'What ie said of Henry IV ? 



176 FIFTH PART. 

Secondly, Louis XIII: he suffered to reign in his 
place the minister Richelieu, a man of genius, who hum- 
bled the house of Austria, diminished the power of the 
grandees, wrested Rochelle from the Protestants, and 
prepared, by the foundation of the French Academy, the 
age of Louis XIV (1610 to 1643). 

Thirdly, Louis XIV, whose reign of 72 years was ren- 
dered illustrious by every kind of glory which usually 
surrounds the thrones of monarchs. His ininority was 
stormy ; the regency of Ann of Austria, his mother, and 
the ministry of Mazarin, caused the war of the Fronde, 
that is to say, a civil war between the parliament and the 
court. His riper age was brilliant : the king then gov- 
.erned by himself; his minister Colbert caused the scien- 
ces, arts and commerce to flourish, while Louis XIV as- 
tonished Europe by his victories in Flanders, Holland, 
&c. His old age was unfortunate; the succession of 
Spain, the defeats of Malplaquct and Ramillics, battles 
gained by Marlborough, the English general, and by 
prince Eugene, general of the Imperialists, placed France 
in a critical situation. Louis XIV died, leaving the 'puh- 
lie treasury indebted to an enormous amount (1715). 

Fourthly, Louis XV, great-grandson of Louis XIV, 
whose infancy was confided to Philip of Orleans, an ami- 
able, brave and politic prince, but immoral. The financial 
system of a Scotchman called Law added still more to 
the critical position of the treasury. The war of the Aus- 
trian succession displayed the splendor of France at Fon- 
tenay, a victory due to Marshal Saxe ; but tlie seven years' 
war was unfortunate for the French, who had to com- 
bat the English and the Prussians, and were completely 
beaten at Roshach ; these disasters and the exhaustion of 
the finances already presaged a general commotion (1774). 



What is said of Louis XIII?— Of Louis XIV?— His 
Dority ?— His rijKT age ?— His old age ?— Of Louis XV ? 



mi- 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 17V 

Fifthly, Louis XVI, the grand- son of Louis XV; he 
was not able to avoid the most terrible of revolutions 
the way for which had been prepared under his two pre- 
decessors. His wisdom, his virtues, his salutary reforms, 
all were useless ; he died a victim to the fury of parties, 
whom his too great gentleness could not control. He 
was beheaded at Paris the 21-^t- of January, 1793. 

Sixthly, the French rcpuUic, founded in 1792, lasted 
till 1804; it was replete with unheard of excesses, with 
unexampled atrocities, and also with deeds of vii-tue, 
courage, patriotism, worthy of a great crisis and a great 
nation, under the Convention, the Directory, and the Con- 
6ulate. 

Seventhly, the French empire : a new dynasty, that of 
Napoleon, occupied the throne of the French until the 
10^-'- of April 1S14. During his reign France was the 
first power of Europe, and the world ; the continual vic- 
tories of the French, the numerous ameliorations in their 
laws, the prosperous state of their commerce, the brilliant 
cultivation of the arts, caused the ambition of the chief of 
the state to be almost forgotten ; frightful reverses, how- 
ever, brought foreign troops into the very capital of 
France. Napoleon fell twice, and the Bourbons twice 
ascended the throne of Saint Louis (1814). The battle of 
Waterloo, lost by the French, put an end to the wars of 
Europe (1815). 

Eighthly, the peaceable reign of Louis XVIII, from 
1815 to 1824, repaired the ills of France. A constitution' 
al charter guarantied the rights of the French. It was 
because the ministers of Charles X did not respect it 
that the elder branch of the Bourbons ceased to reign. 
The French people, after the revolution of the 21^^- 28^^ 

What is said of Louis XVI ?— Of ihe French republic ?— 
The Empire ?— What is said of the reisjn of Louis XVIII ? 
Wliy did ihe elder branch of the Bcurbons cease to reign? 
8* 



178 ' FIFTH PART. 

and 29*^1 of July, 1830, gave the crown to Louis Philippe 
of Orleans, a descendent of Henry IV, now reigning 
(1847). 



Ocncral View of the History ofi rrancc. 

We have seen, after the fall of the empire of Rome, tlie 
Roman element combining with other elements introduced 
by the barbarians during the entire duration of the first 
two dynasties, to produce under tlie third, the feudal 
regimen., a veritable transition between the ancient revo- 
lution of France and modern civilization. 

In the first period, every thing is individual : the vv'ill, 
force, free choice, belong to the individual man in pro- 
perty, and contribute to his moral developement. 

In the second, it is no longer t?ic itidividual man acting 
upon himself, it is the labor of society tending to its for- 
mation. 

All the rest of the history of France is only the result 
of these two sorts of actions, sometimes operating simul- 
taneously, sometimes apart, frequently slow and insensible 
in their progresss ; ometimes, also, rapid and accelerated. 
This is what we call the social movement. 

An indisputable truth results from the exhibition of 
the facts which have passed beneath our view ; it is, that 
in history generally, men arc only the representatives of 
the ideas or the tendencies of their epoch. In fact, in 
descending from the first French dynasty to our own 



To whom did the French give the crown after tlic revolutioH 
of the Three Days ? 

What was the oriijin of the feudal regimen ? 

How may the first period of French liistory be characterised ? 

What is the character of the second ? 

Of what is tiie remainder of French history the result ? 

What truth may be inferred from the facts reviewed ? 



lII'STOTirOAL SKETCHES. 17*) 

days, we recognise in Cloris the type of barharian roy- 
<tUy ^ in Charlemagne, that of the im_perial royalty, and of 
the need of that stahilUy, the production of wliich was 
the labor of the entire middle age. 

Hugh Capet appears to us as the representative of that 
fcttdalirni which was the only possible intermedium be- 
tween the ancient woild atid modern Europe. 

Philip Ai/gmtus, Sai/U Loui.9, and Philij) the Fair, 
exactly represent the first efforts which were made to 
conctutrate the social movement, divided as it was into a 
multitude of local societies, without union and without 
har-nony. 

Stephen Marcel, Philip of Arfevclde, Joan of Arc, and 
Luther himself, are symbols characteristic of the general 
.spirit of the epoch to which they belong. 

The icniofi of absolute 2^o!rer and of modern policy 13 
re]) resented, for tlie first time, by Louis XI, whose antag- 
gonist, Charles the Ila^h, is the true type of the chivalrous 
ambition of the feudal lords, and of their improvident 
policy. 

Under Charles VJII, when the grandees, disappointed 
of their territorial power, aspired to achieve a moral 
power which should associate them with the sovereign 
power, it was \\\& duhe of Orleans (afterward Louis XII) 
who personified the struggle of the nobility against the 
royalty of France. 

During tlie religious wars the Guises, as well as the 
princes of Bourbon, cndeavore.l to secure to themselves 
tlie inheritance of the house of Valois, whose decay was 
manifest : the two parties sought a support in the strength 
of the people, put in action by the religious irritation of 



How is this truth illustrated in the histories of Clovis, 
Charloma^ne, and Huo;h Capet? 

Of Philip An<rusti7p., Saint Loiil?, and Philip the Fair? 

Of Stephen Marcel, Philip de Artevelde, Joan of Arc, and 
Luther ?— Of Louis XI ?— Charles VITI ?— Of the Guises? 



180 FIFTH PART. 

the time. This is again the faction of the grandees strug- 
gling against royally. 

The Marshal de Biron, under Henry tV, renewed the 
same pretensions, and atoned for them with his head. 

The struggle of Richelieu against the higher nohility 
continues the combat of the monarchy against the tradi- 
tions of rho, feudal aristocracy. 

In the war of the Fronde, on the contrary, the power 
of the grandees acts no longer, except as a secondary cause; 
it is the popidar spirit, favored by the resistance of par- 
liaments, which begins to render manifest a need of reform 
in the constitution of the monarchy. 

Louis XIV, the representative o? pure royally, the only 
form of government which had not yet been tried among 
the French, does nothing but collect and improve, for 
his own profit, the fruit of the victories of Richelieu over 
the higher nobility, and of Mazarin over the spirit of re- 
form. 

But at the death of that prince, the void left by the ruin 
of the ancient institutions, which he had concealed by the 
energy of his reign, shows itself openly ; the anciertt 
monarchy finds itself in contact with a new and vivacious 
state of society, which it can neither restrain nor direct. 
The movement has passed from the government to the 
nation. 

The whole reign o^ Louis XV, in which the symptoms 
of an approaching dissolution of the monarchy are no 
longer equivocal, is only the ebullition of that superabund- 
ance of social and national life which overflowed on all 
sides. 

Miraheau, with his vices and his passions, is the faith- 
ful representative of that overflowing vitality which it 



How is this truth illustrated in the history of Marshal de 
Biron ?— Of Richlieu ?— Of the Fronde ?— Of Louis XIV ?~ 
Of Louis XV ?— Of Mirabeau ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. ISl 

would have been his perhaps to master, if lie had lived. 
If it be permitted us, in finishing this revie^v, to cast a 
rapid glance over the events w^hich followed, a period too 
recent for us to venture to enter upon it in detail, we 
should say that the greatest man of modern times, Na- 
polcan, the gigantic child of the revolution, juislook the 
character of his age when he turned the activity of tlie 
national spirit of France towards military gJonj ; that the 
rcstoratiofb of the Bourbons, which did not favor this irre- 
pressible advance of the social movement, was carried 
away by it, and that finally, at the epoch which we have 
reached, the science of government consists in seconding, 
but at the same time directing towards useful results, tlio 
existing tendency of the human mind. 

LOMBARDS. 

The Lombards established themselves, in the VI cen- 
tury, under the conduct of Alboin, in the northern part of 
Italy, called by the Romans Cisalpine Gaul: their king- 
dom consequently comprised the duchies o^ Milan, Parma, 
and Modetia, the marches of Trevisa and Viccjiza, and in 
fine the eastern part of PicdmonL The Lombard kings 
attempted to conquer Italy : Luitprand, one of those 
kings, augmented his territory at the expense of the pope 
and the emperor ; but Pepin the Short, king of France, 
recaptured the exarchate of Ravenna under Astolphus. 
Charlemagne overturned the kingdom of the Lombardt^, 
and placed upon his head the iro?i croicn, after having 
beaten and made prisoner their king Didier, in 774. 



Of Napoleon ? — Of the Bourbons after the restoration ? 
In what does the science of government now consist ? 
Where did (he Lombards establish themselves in tlie VI 
century ? — What territories did their kingdom-include ? 
V/hat is said of the Lombard kings ? — Of Luitprand ? 
Who took from them the exarcliate of Ravenna? 
Who overturned their kinn;dom ? — And Avhen ? 



182 FIFTH PAIIT. 

Lombardy then became a dependency of die French 
empire. In consequence of the wars of Italy, Gormar)y, 
and France, the cities of Lombardy constituted themselves 
so many autocratic republics, such as those of Milan, 
Padua, Modena, &c. 

In 1805, a new kingdom of Lombardy was erected by 
Bonaparte, and the prince Eugene Bcauharnois was called 
to govern it. After a duration often years this now state 
fell, and since 1815, by the stipulations of the congress of 
Vienna, ancient Lombardy forms, together with the state 
of Venice, one of the great fiefs; of the Austrian monar- 
chy, under the name of the homhardo Vcnltian kingdom. 

SPANIARDS. 

The Phenicians, the Carthaginians, and the Romans, 
successively occupied Spain until the time of the invasion 
of the German nations. Then the Alani, the Sucvi, and 
the Vandals subdued that country, and were in turn 
vanquished by the Visigoths, who established themselves 
there and founded a kingdom in .584<. Leovigild appears 
to liave been their first king. 

The monarchy of the Visigoths extended as far as the 
south of France, and became powerful and formidable. 
Meanwhile, in the VIII century (712), the Arabs of Spaiji, 
who are also called Saracens and Moors, conducted by a 
Spanish count named Julian, whom the king of the Visi- 



Into what did tlie kingdoms of Lombardy next conmitute 
ihpjnsclvcs ? 

What is said of the new kingdom of Lombardy ? 

How long did it continue ? 

How wa^ Lombardy disposed of hy the «2ongre<?s of Vienna ? 

What nations successively subdued and occupied Spain ? 

Who was the first king of Visigothic Spain ? 

]low far did the Visigothic monarchy extend ? 

What is said of its power ? 

What occasioned ihe Saracenic invasion ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 183 

goths, Rodoric, had aflfronteJ, passed over from Mauri' 
tahia into Spain, and won the famous victory of Xeres. 
Kodcric lost in that battle his throne and his life. 

In less than five months three-fourths of Spain were 
subject to the Moors ; nothing remained but the moun- 
tains of the Afdurias, in which the Visigothic lords had 
taken refuge under the conduct of Pclayo, a prince of ilie 
blood royal. 

By slow degrees the Visigoths descended from their 
mountains ; and in spite of the efforts of the Moors, 
who were divided among themselves, they foimded sev- 
eral kingdoms, such as those of Leon, Castile, Arrao-on, 
and Navarre. 

In the XV century (1474), the states of Arragon and 
those of Castile were united by the marriage of Ferdi- 
nand V of Arragon and Isabella of Castile, who drove out 
the Moors in 1492, establi.-iied the inquisidon, and reigned 
over the wliolc of christian Spain, reunited into a single 
empire. 

The discovery of America, at the same epoch, caused 
Spain to perform a prcpoadcrating part in Europe. 

The f(inii/t/ of Austria succeeded to that of Arragon and 
Castile, by the accession of Philip th.e Fair, archduke of 
Austria, son of the emperor Maximilian, who had married 
Jane the Foolish, daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand V 
the Catholic, 

Spain became powerful and formidable under this 
family, in whicli we notice : 



What took place at the battle ofXeros ? 
What is sai'l of the proo;ress of the Moors in Spain ? 
How were they opposed by tlie Visi.iioihs ? 
How and when were the states of Arragon and Castile uniied ! 
What were the results of that vmion ? 

What was the efiect on Spain of the discovery of America ? 
How did the family of Austria succeed to that of Arragon and 
Castile? 

What was the condiiion of Spain under that family ? 



184 FIFTH TART. 

Charles Fifth, born at GanJ in 1500. He became 
king of Spain in 151G, and emperor of Germany in 1519. 
lie made Francis J, king of France, prisoner at tbe battle 
of Pavia, led an unfortunate expedition into Africa 
against tbe corsair Barberossa, and was obliged to grant 
liberty of conscience to the Protestants of Germany. He 
abdicated the crown of Spain in favor of his son, Fhilip 
If, and that of Germany in favor of bis brother, Ferdi- 
?iarid. He retired to the convent of Saint Just, v/here be 
died, in 1558, after having solemnized beforehand bis own 
funeral rites. 

Philip II, son of Charles Fifth, surnamed the Fccmon 
of the South, because of his cruelty ; he espoused Maru, 
queen of England; sent against Elizabeth a large flotilla, 
the Invincible Armada, which was destroyed by a tem- 
pest ; gained over Ilenry II, king of France, the famous 
battle o( Saint Queniin ; acquired the kingdom of Po//«<;- 
gal and lost the Low Countries ; and finally died in 1508, 
with the reputation of a good politician, but of an ambi- 
tious and sanguinary prince. 

Philip III, who banished the Moors entirely from 
Spain ; the duke of Lcrrna was bis minister. Philij) IV, 
who lost Portugal ; Olirarcs v/as his minister. 

Charles II, a prince feeble in mind and body ; with 
liim ended the Austrian-Spanish house. He left the 
throne to PZ;//.-}? of /i/?/«9w, grandson o'l Louis XIV {11 ^0), 

THE BOURBONS. 

The accession of Philip V to the tbrone gave rise to 
tbe war of the Spanish succession. Tbe bouse of German 
Austria, which beheld itself excluded, leao-ued v/ith En<T- 
land against Philip. Louis XIV took the part of liis 



Wliat account is c,\yeu of Charles Fifth ?— Of Philip IT?— 
Of Philip III ?— Of Phlbp IV ?--0f Charles II ? 

What account is given of the Bourbons ami of Philip V ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 186 

grandson and by that means nearly destroyed France. 
After reverses without number, the duke of Vendome 
gained the battle of Villa Viciosa, which led, in 1713, to 
the treaty of UtrecJtt and the acknowledgment of Philip V. 
That prince erTected the conquest of the kingdom of 
Naples and Sicily in favor of his son Don Carlos. The 
cardinal AUteroni was his minister. His two sons, Fer- 
dinand VI and Charles III (Don Carlos) successively 
mounted the throne ; both re-established the marine, en- 
couraged the arts and sciences, and protected commerce. 
In 1788 Charles IV was crowned on the death of his fa- 
ther, Charles II f. He was a feeble prince ; but it should 
not be forgotten that he undertook the defence of Louis 
XVI. In ISOG, Napoleon forced him to abdicate in favor 
of his son, Ferdinand, VII, and the latter, in favor of Jo- 
seph^ brother of the French Emperor. Charles was de- 
tained a prisoner at Marseilles and Ferdinand at Va- 
langay : the first died at Rome, and the second re-ascend- 
ed the throne of Spain in 1814. He died the 29*^- of 
Sept. 1833; his daughter, Isabella II, succeeded him, 
and is now (1847) upon the throne. 

ARABS. 

The Scriptures represent the Arabs as descending from 
Ishmael, the son of Hagar and Abraham ; some of them 
led a wandering life, others had fixed residences. They 
could not be subdued by the Romans before the erape- 



Whal conquest did he make in favor of Don Carlos? 

What is said of Ferdinand VI and Charles III ? 

What is said of Charles IV ? 

To what did Napoleon compel him? 

What was his subsequent ftite and that of his son ? 

Who succeeded Ferdinand ? 

From whom are the Arabs supposed to have descended ? 

What were their earlv habits and character? 



186^ ' FIFTH FART. 

ror Tisijan, who conquered tliem (I ccnlury after Jesus 
Chiist). They had thrown oit' the yoke of Rome again, 
when Mahomet appeared, and they made of Arabia the cen- 
tre of his superstitions and his conquests (VII century). 
In (j22 that legislator fled from Mecca to Medina, where 
he founded the religion which bears his name. This 
e{)och is called the Ilegira, or flight ; it is the era of the 
Maiiometans. 

His successors were called califs, or vicars: it was 
under their reign that the Arabs, called also Saracens, 
invaded Asia, Africa, and a part of Europe; Spain be- 
came their conquest, and France would have fallen a prey 
to them but for the valor of Charles Martel, who conquer- 
ed thorn at Tours in the VIII century. 

?«Iany families of the califs governed the Arabians; tlie 
most celebrated are the Omntiades and the Abassldcs ^ the 
latter especially rendered illustrious at Bagdad the glory 
of their name and their throne. Haroiui-al-Raschid, or 
the Just, and Al-Maimoun, his sou, cotcmporaries of 
Charlemagne, protected the arts and sciences. 

The Arabs, while Europe was yet in a state of igno- 
rance, invented Algebra and arithmetical figures, and dis- 
covered the first principles of chemistry and astronomy ; 
but the revolutions of Asia ajid Europe destroyed their 
empire, and the descendants of the instructors of the thesi 
known world give proofs of their existence at the present 



Wlicn and by whom were they first subdued ? 

What was th«^ir condition when Mahomet appeared? 

What is said of hitn? 

When did the Hcirira take place ? 

Wh(3 were Mahomet's successors ? 

What memorable invasion took place under their auspices? 

What two families of the califs were most ceh^brated ? 

Wiiat is said of Ilaroun al Raschid and Al IMaimoun? 

What seien'titic improvements were made by the Arabs? 

llow was their empire destroyed ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 187 

flay, under ibc name of Bedouins, only by the pillage of 
caravans. 

MOORS. 

The Moors appear to have descended from the Mauri- 
tauians and Numidians, mingled with the Phenicians, 
Romans, Berbers, and Arabs ; they had in part embiaced 
Christianity, introduced into their country by the Vandals, 
when they were subdued by the Saracens. When the 
latter entered into Spain in the VIII century (712), a 
great number of Moors accompanied them, and the name 
of the latter was alone in use to designate the Mahometan 
rulers of the Peninsula. 

The Moors were masters of Spain during nearly eight 
centuries (from 712 to 1192). When Abdheraman, hav- 
ing escaped from the massacre of the Ommiades, appeared 
in Spain, they acknowledged him for king in 755. Cor- 
doca was the capital of the kingdom of the Moors, and 
became as famous as Bagdad. The arts flourished there, 
the manners of the people were polished, the magnificence 
of the Moorish kings became celebrated, and the reign of 
Abdheraman III, in the X century, offers the attractive 
spectacle of all that the imagination can figure to itself of 
opulence in the cities, splendor in the palaces, in fine, of 
everything that the developement of modern civilization 
has introduced of elegance and urbanity in our usages, 
while the rest of Europe was yet plunged in barbarism. 



How are they represented at the present day ? 
From whom do the Moors appear to have descended ? 
What was their religious state when subdued by the i 
cens? — Did they accompany the Saracens into Spain? 
How long did they continue masters of that country ? 
Whom did they acknowled,«re for king in 755 ? 
What city was their capital ? 
What Is said of the reign of Abdheraman HI ? 



183 FIFTH PART. 

But the intestine divisions of the !\Ioors caused their de- 
struction ; the capture of Grenada, in 1492, by Oonzalvo 
de Cordova, from Boabdil, their last king, put an end to 
their dominion. Forced to give way, they purchased, by 
the weight of gold, the permission to retire into Africa. 
Their expulsion was an important loss to agriculture and 
the arts. 

SWEDES. 

The origin of the Swedes is unknown ; the existence 
of the famous Odin, to whom extraordinary facts arc at- 
tributed, is only fabulous. Biornc, one of their first kings 
(IX century), is regarded by some historians as the verit- 
able founder of their monarchy ; but it is only in the XII 
century that the history of this country begins to present 
some certainty : then Eric, called the Saint, established 
there the catholic religion. 

In the XiV century Margaret Waldemar, called the 
Seiiiiraiiiis of the North, united, under the same sceptre, 
Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, in 13S3. 

The asseyiibJy or diet of Colmar ratified, in 1397, this 
reunion of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, which sub- 
sisted until 1521. 

Su'eden then groaned under the tyranny of Christiern 
II ; but Gustavifs Vasa, the only scion of the kings of 
Sweden, after having remained many years proscribed, and 



What caused the destruction of the Moorish kingdom ? 

AVas their exclusion from Spain an injury to civilization ? 

What is said of the origin of the Swedes, and of Oden ? — 
Of Biorne ? 

Wlien does the History of Sweden become more satisfactory ? 

Who established there the Roman catholic religion ? 

What im))ortant union took place under Margaret of Wal- 
demar ? — What was done at the diet of Calmar ? 

What was the state of Sweden in 1521 ? 

What is said of Gustavus Vasa ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 189 

a fugitive in the mines of Dalccarlia, put himself at the 
head of a party of mountaineers, and succeeded in drivino- 
out the usurper Christiern in 1523. From that epoch to 
our own days, three families have governed Sweden : 
first, that of Vasa ; secondly, that of Deux Fonts ; thirdly, 
that of Holstein Eutin. The first king was that same 
Gustavus Vasa, the true founder of Sweden, in 1523; he 
established Lutheranism in his dominions. We notice, 
also, Gustavus Adolphus, surnamed the Great (1611), 
who made Austria tremble in the tldrti) years' war, and 
died at the battle of Lutzen (1632). Christina, a woman 
of great genius, but of a light and trifling character, abdi- 
cated in favor of her cousin Charles Gustavus (1654). 

The family of Dctix Fonts, whose first king was Charles 
X (1654). His reign was a succession of warlike ex- 
ploits ; he made the North tremble. We remark here 
Charles XI (1660), whose minority was marked by in- 
ternal agitations. Charles XII, surnamed the Alexander 
of the North (1697), gained the victories of Narva and 
Riga over Russia, Poland, and Denmark, was beaten at 
Pultawa (1709) by Peter the Great, emperor of Russia, 
retired to Bender, in Bessarabia, and perished at the siege 
of Fredrickshall, in 1718, where he was struck with a 
cannon ball : he was thirty-six years of age when he 
died, Ulrica Eleonora, his sister, associated to the throne 
her husband, Frederic of Hesse. 

The house o^ Holstein- Eat in gave to Sweden, for king, 
Adolphus Frederic (1751), under whom internal troubles 
took place, such as those of the honncts and the caps. 

We notice here Gustavus III, an amiable prince and 
a great king, who in 1772 overturned the constitution of 



Wliat families have governed Sweden since that epoch ? 

Who introduced Lutheranism into Sweden ? 

What is said of Gustavus Adolphns?— Of Christina? — Of 
Charles X ?— Of Charles XI ?— Of Charles XII ?— Of Ulrica 
Eleonora? — 0^ Adolphus Frederic ?— Of Gustavus III ? 



190 riTTIl PART. 

Vlrka, restored to the throne its authority, and to the 
JSwedcrf repose and their political influence : be was as* 
sassinated at a ball in 1792. 

Gustavus IV Adolphus, bis son, who was then only 
fourteen years of- age, succeeded bim under the re^jency 
of the duke of Sudermania, bis uncle, afterward Charles 
XIII. In 1S09 be was constrained to abdicate the crown. 

Charles XIH, finding himself without a direct heir, 
adopted at first the prince Christian Augustus of Scblcs- 
burg Holstein ; but the latter having died suddenly on 
the 21*^ of August, 1810, the diet of Orchro chose, to fill 
his place, Marshal Bernadottc, prince of Ponte Corvo, a 
Frenchman, who was adopted by the king under the name 
of Charles John, and who mounted the throne at the death 
of Charles XIII, which happened on the 5'^- of February 
1818. The present king of Sweden is Oscar I. He as- 
cended the tlirone the 8'^^- of March, 1814. 

NOKWEGIANS. 

It was fiom Norway that swarm of |)eoplc called Nor- 
mans, Danes, and Scandinavians issued, v»'ho immortalised 
themselves by conquests in France, in England, and even 
in Italy and Greece. Olaus, called the Saint, established 
Christianity in Norway in the IX century. The first 
movements of the reformation made themselves felt there 
about 1528 ; it was established in that country in 1537, 
and from that time Lutheranism lias been the prevailing 
-■eligion. 

Ilaguin, having espoused Margaret of Waldemar, bo- 
came king of Norway and of Denmark, and at his deatii 
he left his wife upon this double throne. Afterward, the 

Wl^al is said of Gustavus IV ?— Of Charles XIII?— Chris- 
tians Augustus?— Of Marshal Bernarlotte ? — Of Oscar I ? 

What is said of the Norwegian migrations? — Of Olaus? — 
Of the reformation in Norway? — Of Haguin and Margaret of 
Waldemar ? 



mSTOTvlCAL SKETCHES. 191 

t'.vo crowns remaiiicJ lUiiteJ until 1811, the epoch at 
u'hlch Norway was reunited to Sweden by the treaty of 
Kid. The Norwegians at first opposed the union : they 
established over themselves a king of their own ; but they 
wore obliged to give way. At the present day Norway, 
although governed by the same king as Sweden, forms a 
di^stinct State, to wliich its constitution arid laws are pre- 
served. 

THE ENGLISH. 

In the first five centuries the Cells are seen to occupy 
Great Britain ; their government, their religion, their 
druids, their manners were the same as the Gauls. In 
the I century the Britons were conrpiercd by the Ro- 
mans under Julius Ciesar, and, after havino: been durinir 
four centuries subject to the dominion of that poople, they 
were laid waste by the Picts and the Caledonians, and 
invited the aid of the x\ngle.s and tlic Sax«)ns. German 
nations, who got possession of their country, and forced 
them to take refuge in the mountains uf the country of 
Wales, or to emigrate into Armoric Gaul. The Angles 
and the Saxcms founded the Hcj'tarchy, that is to say, 
seven governments, which were all united in 827 under 
the dominion of Egbert, king of Wessex. 
Nine fiimilies have reigned over England : 
First. That of the Anglo- Saxom, whose first liing is 
Egbert, in the IX century (827). 



Wlien was Norway reunited to Sweden ? 

How was this union at tirst relished by the Norwegians ? 

What IS the political constitution of Norway at present ? 

What points of resemblance between the Celts of Britain 
and the Gauls ? — What is said of the Roman conquest ? — Of 
tiie incursions of the Picts and Caledonians ? — Of the introduc- 
tion into Britain ofthe Angles and Saxons ] — Of the Heptarchy ? 

How many families have reigned over Engjand ? 

Who was the first kino; of the Ano[lo-Saxon house? 



192 FIFTH PART. 

Secondly. That of the Danes, whose first king is Saeiio 
1, XI century (1014). 

Thirdly. That of the Normans, whose firdt king is Wil- 
liam the Conqueror, XI century (1066). 

Fourthly. That of the Vlanta genets or Angcvines, whose 
first king is Henry IF, XII century (1154). 

Fifthly. That of the Lancastcrs, whose first king is 
Henry IV, XIV century (1399). 

Sixthly. That of York, whose first king is Edward IV, 
XV century (1461). 

Seventhly. That of the TifAors, whose first king is 
Henry VII, XV century (1603). 

Eighthly. That of the Stuarts, whose first king is 
James I, XVII century (1603). 

Ninthly. That of Brunswick, whose first king is George 
I, XVIII century (1714). 

In the Saxon Family we notice Alfred the Great, a 
virtuous prince, a warrior and a lawgiver; he founded the 
uiiiversity of Oxford, 

In the Danish House, Canute the Great, a prince wor- 
thy of a better age : he conquered Norv/ay, retired into 
a monastery and died. 

In the Norman Family: first, William the Conquer- 
or, w4io gained over Harold, his competitor, the battle of 
Hastings (1066) ; he made a revolution in the laws, pro- 
perty and language of England: this prince introduced 
into that country the feudal system ; secondly, Henry I, 
son of William, who established in his dominion uniformi- 
ty of weights and measures : he signed a charter which 
granted certain important privileges to the nation. He 
was surnamed Beati Clerc, because he was learned. 



Who was the first king of the Danish house ? — Of the Nor- 
man?— Of the Plantagenets ? — Of the Lancasters? — Of the 
House of York?— Of the Tudors?— Of the Stuarts?— Of | 
Brunswick ? — What is said of Alfred the Great? — Of Canute 
the Great ?— OT William the Conqueror ?— Of Henry I? | 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 193 

In the House of the Plantagenets, Hmry II, then the 
most povverfhl prince of Europe ; Eleonor of Guyenne, 
the divorced wife of Louis VII, brought to him in dowry a 
great number of provinces. The tranquiHty of this prince 
was troubled by domestic quarrels, by the revolt of his 
sons and by the murder of the archbishop of Canterbury, 
Thomas a Becket ; chagrin shortened his days (1189), 
Richard Caiur de Lion, the hero of the third crusade, 
celebrated by his misfortunes and his romantic character; 
he was detained prisoner by Henry VI, king of Germany, 
and died at the siege of the castle of Chalus, in the Li- 
mousin (1199). John Lackland, who WRS obliged to sign 
for the barons that charter which the English regard as 
the palladium of their liberty. Edward III, so famous 
in the annals of France : he vanquished Philip VlatCre- 
cy, and John the Good at Poitiers, by the arms of his 
son, the Black Prince; he had as prisoners the count of 
Blois, the king of Scotland and the king of France (1399). 

In the Branch of Lancaster Henry V, whose youth was 
licentious, but whose reign was brilliant; he beheld him- 
self master of France by the battle of Agincourt and by 
the treaty of Troyes (1420), Henry VI, who beheld tak- 
en from him his crown, and who lost his life, notwith- 
standing the heroic courage of Margaret of Anjou, his 
wife: under his reign England was rent asunder by 
the factions of the Red Rose and the White (1461). 

In the House of York, Richard III, who has left an odi- 
ous memory: he caused his two nephews to be strangled. 
Still, certain historians have sought to repel the imputa- 
tion of those crimes with which he is reproached. 
; In the Family of the Tudors, Henry VII, surnamed 



What is said of Henry II?— Of Richard the Lion-hearted? 
—Of John Lackland ?— Of Edward III ?— Of Henry V ?— Of 
Henry VI ?— Of Richard III ?— Of Henry VII ? 

9 



lot rirrii paiit. 

tiie Solomon of England ; Henry J HI, whose reign is 
celebrated hy the separation of the .English Church from 
Rome : he had six wive?, almost the whole of whom };e 
}mt to death. Mar^/, his daughter, of a cruel and jealous 
character, sacrificed the virtuous and accomplished Jaiie 
Grev, re-established the Catholic religion, and delivered 
to the Ihunes a great number of perso-ns of the reformed 
l^iiih: she married Philip II, kiirg of Spaiti. EUzahcfh, 
whose brilliant and glorious reign is soiled by the execir- 
lion of Mary Stuart: she defeated i\\q great urniMdu of 
Philip II. Tlie counts of Leicester and Essex were her 
fiivorites (160^). 

In llie Familtj of the Stuarts, Ja)nes I, the son of Mary 
Stuart, a weak prince, wdio occupied himself with no- 
thing but theology : under him the gunpowder plot took 
}>lace. Charles I, whose head was brought to the scaf- 
fold ; he was replaced by Oiiver CromiccU, who re?gne<l 
vvilb glory under the title o£ protecfor. Charles II, w1k):m 
General Monk was the mentis of restoring to the throne ; 
tliis prince distinguished Ijimsclf only by his wit and his 
taste for pleasure : it has been affirmed of him that he 
never said a foolish thing or did a icise one. James IF, 
who did not know how to make himself loved by his peo- 
ple ; he re-establivshed Catholicism, and by his arbitrary 
actions was obliged to fly into France (1G8S). William 
III of Nassau, \he repeatedly successful rival of Louis 
XIV: under his reign and that of Anve, the marvellous 
mechanism of the English constitution was completed and 
fixed, the influence of the commons, the concurrence of 
the peers and the independence of the crown were finally 
secured and harmonized. 



What account is £;iven of Henrv VIII?— Of Mary ?— Of 
E!i/abeih?— Of JamVs I ?— Of Charles J?— Of Oliver Cron.- 
well?— Of Charles II?— Of James II ? — Of William III of 
Nassau? — Of Anne? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 195 

In the House of Bnniswklc, George II, wlio declared 
himself for Maria Theresa in the war of the Austrian 
euccession ; he was beaten at Fontenoi; he defeated the 
pretender Charles at Culloden : his minister was William 
Pitt, lord Chatham. George III, whose reign was filled 
with great events which pertain to the history of Europe, 
Asia and America. Under him England lost her Ameri- 
«can colonies in 1783. Geor^re IV, at first re^rent during 
tl:e derangement of his father; Well ington, his general, 
defeated the French at Waterloo. Bonaparte confided 
himself in vain to the generosity of George; he was ex- 
iled to the island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1S21. 
Victoria I is at present on the throne of Great Britain. 

SCOTCH. 

The Scotch were formerly called Calctlonians ; in the 
V century they invaded the territory of the Britons ; 
they maintainet^ their independence against the devices 
of their own kings, the series of whom was interrupted 
by Edward I, king of England (XIII century), who tried 
to bring about the union of the two kingdoms; but Scot- 
land recovered her liberty under Robert Biuce. The 
crown passed afterward, in 1371, to the family of tho 
Stuarts, of which all the kings died miserably. Mary 
Stuart, detained in captivity during eighteen years by 
Elizabeth, queen of England, was finally beheaded iu 
1587 : James VI, her son, being mounted on the throne 

What account Is jriven of Gcors^e II? — Of George III? — Of 
George IV ?— Of Victoria I ? 

What did the Scotch do in the V century? 
Against whom did they maintain their independence ? 
By whom was the series of their kings interrupted ? 
Under whom did Scotland recover her liberty? 



To whom did-her crown afterward pass? 
What is said of the Stuarts in general ?— ( 



-Of Mary Stuart? 
—Of James VI ? 



196 FIFTH PART. 

of England, the two crowns were united on his head and, 
after many disturbances, they were finally blended in one. 

IRELAND. 

The Irish, whose origin is obscure, were governed by 
their own kings until 1172, when Henry II Plantagenet, 
king of England, profiting by the disturbances which had 
arisen among them, seized upon tliat kingdom and invest- 
ed with it his son, John Lackland ; the latter united it to 
England in 1199. 

But revolutions rent this country; it was not entirely 
subdued until towards the end of the XVI century. 

Ireland had its own parliament until ISOl, the epoch 
at which it was united to Great Britain in spite of the 
liveliest opposition. 

POLES. 

The Poles are of Sur7?iatian origin ; Lcchus, the bro- 
ther of the duke of Bohemia Zeck, is regarded as their 
founder ; he lived in the middle of the VI century, and is 
supposed to have founded Gnesne ; but the history of 
Poland does not begin to be interesting until Piasf, in 
812, who brought to the throne virtues which have ren- 
dered his memory dear to the Poles. In the middle of 
the XI century, Bolcslas J/ crowned himself king of Po- 
land. But the most celebrated family which has governed 
this country is that of the JagcUons ; it occujiied the 



By whom were the Irish governed until 1172 ? 

Who then seized upon their kii>£;dom ? 

Whom did he invest with it ? — How did John dispose of it ? 

Was Ireland quiet under this arrangement ? 

When was that country deprived of its parli-ament? 

When does the history of Poland begin to be interesting? 

What is said of Piasf?— Of Bolcslas ?— Of the Jagellons ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 197 

throne Jaiing 3 86 years. The crown afterward became 
elective, and among the kings of that epoch, we remark : 

First, Henry /, of Valois, brother of Charles IX, who 
fled precipitately from Cracovia, to cause himself to be 
consecrated king of France. 

Secondly, John Casimir, who abdicated the throne in 
1688 ; he left Poland and retired into France, where 
Louis XIV gave him the abbey of Saint Germain-des- 
Pres; he died at Nevers, without posterity (1672). 

Thirdly, John Sohieski, who delivered Vienna when 
besieged by the Turks (1683). 

Fourthly, Stanislas I, Leckzlnski, king by the protec- 
tion of Charles XII ; he was not able to sustain himself 
upon the throne, was obliged to fly, and went to reign in 
Lorraine, where his virtues endeared him to the inhabi- 
tants. His daughter Manj married Louis XV, king of 
France. 

The elective government was the source of the con- 
tinual misfortunes which afflicted Poland. She was 
successively dismembered by a three-fold division be- 
tween Russia, Austria and Prussia. In 1795 she was 
entirely erased from the number of European govern- 
ments. But, in 1830, she sought to recover her indepen- 
dence ; during a long time her heroic courage succeeded 
in resisting the numerous army of Nicholas ; but numbers 
prevailed, anJ Poland has returned under the dominion 
of Russia. Russia possesses at present the Duchy of 
Warsaw, which forms the vice-royalty of Poland. 



After whom did the crown of Poland become elective ? 
What is said of Heiirv I ? — Of John Casimir ? — Of John 
Sobieski ?— Of Stanislas "l ? 

What was the source of the misfortune of Poland ? 

How was slxe dismembered, and by whom ? 

When was her nationality destroyed ? 

What effort did slie make in 1830 ? 

How did she succeed ? 

Who possesses tlie Duchy of Warsaw ? 



198 FIFTH PART. 



RUSSIANS. 



The Russians appear to be a mixture of Scythians, 
Huns, Cimbri, Geta3, Sarmatians, and other barbarous 
nations ; the commencement of their history, then, is 
uncertain and not very interesting. Many families have 
governed them. 

First, that of Rurich', fo imder of the Russian empire, 
in the IX century (860). 

Secondly, that of Wladijjiir, called the Great, wlio 
was converted to the christian faith by the Greeks, and 
received baptism ; he is considered as tlie apostle and 
the Solomon of Russia, in the XI century (1015). 

Thirdly, that of Ivan or John IV, the first Czar, in 
1584. 

Fourthly, that of Michael Romano/, in 1G13. It was 
under this dynasty that Russia emerged from obscurity. 
Peter the Great, grandson of Michael, civilized his peo- 
ple, established a navy, built in a short time consideralde 
forts and cities, vanquished Charles XII at Fultawa, and 
deserved the title of legislator and restorer of Russia ; 
having mounted the throne in 1G95, he died in 1725. 

The reign of Elizaheth, his daughter, which lasted 
twenty years, also formed an epoch in the annals of that 
country, (1741 to 1762). 

At the death of this princess the family of Holstein- 
Gotthorp ascended the throne of Russia, in the person 
of Peter III, grandson of Peter the Great, and son of 
Charles Frederick, Duke of Holslein-Gotthorp, and Anne 
of Russia, elder daughter of Peter the Great (1762). 

Peter soon lost his throne and his life, and left the 



What is said of ihe early history of the Rus(?ians? 

What is said of Rurick?— Of VVladimir ?— Of John IV ?— 
Of Michael Romanof?— Of Peter the Groat?— Of Elizabeth? 
--Of Peter III? 



IIISTGKIOAL SKETCHES. ISO 

crown to hit; wife, ilie celebrated Catliariut II, (17<)2 to 
179G). That princess made war with success upon 
Turkey and Sweden, and took to herself a part of the 
three divisions of Poland. Payl I. who succeeded h 



r.er 



joined the coalition against France, and ended hy con- 
chiiling peace with that kingdom ; but having fallen the 
victim of a conspiracy in 1801, lie had for his successor 
Afrxahdir /, his son. That prince liad to sustain a terri- 
ble war against the French, who carried their victorious 
arms to tlie very centre of his empire. Tlie uidjoundetl 
ambition of Napoleon and the climate of Russia rendcreil 
the Russians triumphant in the campaign of 1812, and 
Alexander led his soldiers to Paris. This prince died 
suddenly at Taganrok, Dec. 1''' 182o. The crown theti 
fell, by the renunciation of Constantiue, to Nicholas 1, 
bis brother, now reigning (1847). His n^ign has been 
distinguished hy his victories over the Turks, and by the 
Polish Revolution. 

GERMANS. 

Tiie Ctrjiiayis, propeily so called, inhabited, from the 
III century after J. C. th-e part of Germany since called 
Suahla. Clevis J, king of France (V century), van- 
ouishod tlicm at Tolhiac, and annexed them t) his vast 
empire. Charlemagne reduced them still more to obedi- 
ence, by the victory of Paihrhorji, and rendered himself, 
moreover, master of Italy, after having made Didiei", 
king o^ the Lombards, prisoner. Thus France, Germany 
and Italy constituted oidy one empire, and were subject 
to the same master, in the person of Ciiarlemagne, who 
forms tlie stock of the Emperors of the West since 800. 



What i<^ said of Catharine II?— OfPaul 1 ?— Of Alexander 
?__0r Nicholas I? 

Where have tlie Germans resided since the lil centxiry? 
What did Clevis I do to them ? — And Ci)arlemr.gne ? 



200 FIFTH PART. 

From the period of the dismemberment of the empire 
among the sons of Charlemagne, many German Lords 
rendered themselves independent. Such was the origin 
of the States of Germany, of which one retains the title 
of the Empire. 

EMPIRE OF GERMANY. 

In 912 the Germans shook off the yoke of the French 
and raised to the throne a king chosen among them- 
selves ; this is the commencement of the history of Ger- 
many, properly speaking. Among the dynasties which 
have governed Germany, of which the throne is elective, 
we shall notice : 

First, the House of Franconia, whose first king was 
Conrad I, (X century) 912. 

Secondly, the House of Saxony, (X century) whose first 
king was Henry the Fowler ; this was a brilliant epoch. 
Otho the Great, (936) is the hero of that dynasty ; he 
conquered Italy, made himself feared by his vassals, and 
assumed the title of Emperor, which has since remained 
to the supreme head of Germany. 

Thirdly, the House of Salic Franconia, whose first 
king was Conrad 77(1024). Under this house the king- 
dom of Aries, or of the two Burgundies, was incorpora- 
ted with the empire ; but Germany was rent asunder by 
the quarrels between the Emperor Henry IV, and the 



What was the origin of the German States ? 
What revolution was effected hy the Germans in 912 ? 
Is the throne of Germany elective ? 

Who was the first king of the House of Franconia ? — Of the 
House of Saxony ? 

Who is the hero of that dynasty ? 

What is narrated of him ? ^ 

Who was the first king of the House of Salic Franconia ? 

What additions were made to the empire under it ? 

By what quarrel was Germany rent asunder? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 201 

Pope Gregory VII, on the subject of investitures. The 
lords profited by these dissensions, to render themselves 
independentr 

Fourthly, the House of Suabia Hohenstauffcn, wliose 
first king is Conrad III, who took the cross with Louis 
VII, king of France (1137). During this period Italy 
entirely escaped from the imperial dominion ; the num- 
ber of independent princes increased, and the royal 
authority became, in fact, a nullity. 

Among the kings of this family we notice : first, Frede- 
ric Barharossa, who took the cross with Philip Augustus 
and Richard Coeur de Lion, and who died of a disease 
contracted in crossing the Cydnus ; secondly, Henry VI, 
the Nero of Germany, who held Richard Coeur de Lion 
in captivity ; thirdly, Frederic II, one of the greatest 
kings of Europe, famous for his wars and his quarrels 
with the Holy See; fourthly, Conrad IV, the last king 
of that branch, which became extinct in the person of the 
young and interesting Conradin. The king of Naples, 
Charles of Anjou, brother of Saint Louis, put this un- 
happy prince to death upon a scaffold, at the age of 17 
years. 

INTERREGNUM. 

An interregnum of 23 years followed the death of Con- 
rad IV. Several emperors were then chosen at once ; nu- 
merous states rose in revolt; Italy and Germany achieved 
their revolution ; a common bond united them all. The 



How did the lords profit by these disturbances ? 

Who was the first king of the House of Suabia Hohen- 
stauffen? 

What took place during his reign ? 

What is said of Frederic Barharossa ?— Of Henry VI?— 
Of Frederic II ?— Of Conrad IV ?— Of Conradin ? 

What happened in Germany during the Interregnum? 
"9* 



60S FIITH PART. 

diets or assemblies of the imperial courts vftive tlie springs 
of the Germanic body. 

Finally, the electors conferred the supreme dignity on 
liodolph of Hapsburg, in 1273 ; he was no more than a 
simple count ; he vanquished Ottucar, king of Bohemia, 
und got possession of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and 
Carniola. 

Fifthly, The Familtj of Uopsburg was one of the most 
powerful and remarkable in Europe ; it raised itself by 
matrimonial alliances, and was divided into two celebra- 
ted branches : lirst, that of Spanish Austria, begun by 
Charles V (1519), and extinquished in 1700, by the death 
of Charles II, king of ■ Spain ; secondly, that of German 
Austria, begun in the person of Ferdinand, brother of 
Charles V, in 1556, and extinguished in 1740, by the 
death of Charles VI. 

In this interval the kings who are nolicable are : 

First, Albert of Auslria, whose tyranny was the occa- 
sion of the independance of Switzerland, in 1308; 

Secondly, Charles IV of Lux€?nhurg, who dissipated 
the royal revenues and completed the limitation of tlie 
royal authority by the golden bull (1353) ; 

Thirdly, Frederic HI, an avaricious, unjust and igno- 
rant prince, under whom the Turks established them- 
selves in Europe, in 1453 ; 

Fourthly, Maximilian (1493), who increased the pow- 
er of the house of Austria by his marriage with Mary of 
Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Rash, and only heiress 
of the Low-Counties : 



What is said of the diets of the imperial conrfs ? • 
Upon whom was the imperial dignity finally conferred? 
What are tlie acliievements of Rodolj)}) of llapsburg? 
What is said of the family of Hapsburij ? 
Into what two branches was it divided ? 

What is said of Albert I ? — Of Charle? IV of Luxemburg ? — 
Of Frederic III ?-~0f Maximilian ? 



HISTORICAL f^KETcrics. '203 

Fifthly, Ckai-ks Fiflk (l.^ilO), the most powerful mon- 
arch of his age, and rival of Francis I ; iie abvlicated ia 
IS.OG, and retired to tlic convent of Saint Jxist. 

iSlxthly, F'jrdiuaad I, who fixed tlie imperial crown in 
Bohemia and Hungary (ir>o8)- 

Seventhly, JMafthias Ferdlnund III, under whom the 
thirtij years' war took place, which was caused by the a?ii- 
bilion of tho house of Austria, from IGIS to 16 i 8 ; 

Eightly, Charks IV, who set about uniting Spain to 
the Empire a second time; the last male of his house, 
he left the throne to his daughter 31aria Theresa, in 
1780. 

Ninthly, the Ilotcsc of AuHtro-Lorralnii had for irs first 
Bfivereigns Francis I, of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, 
and jlaria Thertsa ^ this family still reigtjs (1847) in the 
person of Ferdinand II, who came to the throne ?vlarcli 
2"d. 183o. 

The seven years' war, the dismemberment of Poland, 
the conquests of Bonaparte, which reduced Fiancis II to 
his hereditary States in 180G, and finally the coalitions 
against France, are the four great events which have 
taken place down to the present time, in tho history ol 
tliis dynasty. 

GERMANIC COXFEDKfcf.ACV. 

In ISOG, all the princes of the south of Germany com- 
posed the confederation of the Rhine, \v\i\c\\ was replaced 
by the Germanic Confederacy established in 1811. In re- 



What IS said of Charles Fifth ?— Of Ferdinand I ?-0f 
Matthias Ferdinand III?— Of Charles VI ? 

Who were the first sovcrei-^ns of the Hovise of Lorraine ? 

Who is the present emperor? 

Wliat are tlie great events which Iiave occured iinder this 
dynasty ? 

When was the Confederation of die Rhine (brmed? 



By what was it replaced ? 



204 FIFTH PART. 

ference to more important objects, the diet forms itself 
into a general assembly, and Austria enjoys the presiden- 
cy ; the ordinary diets sit at Fraukfort-on-the-Maine. 

DANES. 

Anciently, Denmark was divided into many petty sove- 
reignties : each small island of that country had its king; 
Jutland had several of them. Zealand was the resi- 
dence of the most powerful of these petty princes, who 
abandoned themselves to piracy, like the nations of the 
North in general. 

The Danes made a great number of expeditions 
against Great Britain and France. They subdued a part 
of England and formed petty kingdoms in that country ; 
as to France, they did nothing but pillage her and lay her 
waste. 

They were intrepid, and accustomed to live at sea; they 
practiced a gross worship, impressed nevertheless with a 
certain savage grandeur. 

In the X century Christianity was introduced almost 
by force into Denmark; some time previously, king 
Gorm or Gormo possessed himself of the sovereignty, 
and reigned over a great part of what at the present day 
forms Denmark. Scania was one of his provinces ; but 
Sleswick was taken from him by the emperors, of Ger- 
many and erected into a raargraviate. On the other hand, 
Sueno, grandson of Gormo, conquered England ; and his 
eon Canute added to it the conquest of Norway, so that 
these three sceptres were in the hands of the latter 
prince. 

How is the Germanic Confederacy constituted ? 

"What was the ancient state of Denmark ? 

What account is given of the Danish expeditions against 
Eojojland and France ? 
* AVhatis said of their early liabits and religion ? 

When and liow was Christianity introduced into Denmark ? 

What is said of King Gorm ?— Of Sueno ?— Of Canute ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 205 

From the XI century (104-2), England had once more 
kings of her own, and, five years after, Norway was also 
lost to Denmark, which was rent asunder by intestine 
wars and enfeebled by the conflicts of monarchy and 
feudalism, 

Waldemar I, restored, in the XII century, some lustre 
to the Danish power. The daughter of Waldemar III, 
Margaret, having espoused Haquiu VIII, king of Nor- 
way, was regent of the two kingdoms, joined to them by 
conquest that of Sweden, and endeavored to consolidate 
this union of the three kingdoms of the North by the 
famous treaty of Calmar, in the XIV century. This union 
lasted scarcely half a century. 

In the XV century (1448), Sweden was entirely de- 
tached from Denmark; in the same year, the ancient dy- 
nasty of the Shioldungian kings being extinct, the Danes 
raised to the throne Christian I, of the race of the counts 
of Oldenburg, who have reigned ever since ; Christian 
was king of Denmark and Norway, and duke of Sleswick 
and Holstein : the latter duchy was afterward the appanage 
of another branch of the family, which preserved it until 
the XVIII century, an epoch when it returned to the do- 
main of the kings of Denmark, by means of the session 
of the duchy of Oldenburg. 

The religious reform under Luther was introduced, in 
the XVI century, into Denmark without much difficulty. 

When were England aivl Norway lost to the Danes ? 

What was the state of Denmark itself at that time ? 

What is said of Waldemar I ? — Of Margaret? 

How long did the union of Colmar last ? 

When was Sweden detached from Denmark ? 

What took place at the extinction of the Shioldungian dy- 
nasty ? 

Over what countries did Christian I, reign ? 

Through what vicissitudes has the duchy of Sleswick and 
Holstein passed ? 

When and how was the reformation introduced into Den 
mark ? 



206 FIFTH TArvT. 

At the commencement of the XIX century "(iSG'?), tlie 
king of Denmark having refused to make common cause 
with England against the emperor of the French, wlio 
then ruled over the whole of the continent, Copenhagen 
Avas bombarded by the English, and the government 
forced to deliver up its entire military fleet ; and as the 
Danes continued to adhere to the party of Napoleon, the 
powers allied to England at the peace of 1814 took Nor- 
way from Denmark in order to give it to Sweden, and 
granted the Danish sovereign, as a sort of indemnity, the 
German Duchy of Luxcmburgh. The present monarch 
(1817) of Denmark is Christian VIII, who came to the 
throne December 3='^^' 1839. 

HLNGARIAXS. 

Hungary, formerly Pannonia, had been peopled origi- 
nally by the Huns. It was afterwards subject to differ- 
ent nations * Charlemagne got possession of it in the VII 1 
century. 

About the end of the IX century, other nations, who 
came from Asia, fixed themselves there ; these were the 
Hungarians. 

Geisa was the first among the kings of Ilungcry who 
embraced Christianity; Stephen, his son, succeeded liim.. 
Under the kings who followed, nothing but wars and re- 
hellions are seen. The most remarkable are : Stcphci 
II, a virtuous and brave prince (XII century) ; Afidrav 
II, who put himself at the head of a crusade (XIII cen- 
tury) ; Andrew III, his grandson ; Louis I, who joined to 



Why was Copenhagen bombarded by tljo English in 18C7 ? 
How did the allied powers deal wiih Denmark in 1814 ? 
Who is the reigning kine; of tliat counlry ? 
W!io c;ot possession of Hungary in the VIII century ? 
Who fixed theniselves tliorc about the end of the IX .' 
What is said of Geisa?— Of Stephen ?— Of S!ei)heu 11?— 
Of Andrew II ?— Of Andrew III ?~Of Louis I ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 207 

liis warlike qualities prudence, generosity and the love 
of letters : at his death his daughter Mary was proclaim- 
ed queen ; She associated to her power Sigismund, her 
husband, who became king of Bohemia and emperor 
(XV century). 

During the minority of Ladidas V (XV century), tiie 
celebrated Corcinus, a noble Hungarian, son of John 
Iluniades, made war against the Turks with the greatest 
success. Matthias Corainus, his son, was elected at the 
d<3alh of Ladislas, and reigned with glory. 

Wars almost continual were caused by the ambition of 
the house of Austria, and by the resistance of the Hunga- 
rians (XVH century). Ferdinand, brother of Charles V, 
Buccecded in causing the Hungarian crown to be declared 
hereditary in the house of Austria, and placed upon the 
liead of his son, the archduke, who became emperor, 
under the name of Maximilian II, in 1568. The crown 
passed, after many agitations, to Charles IV^, the father 
of Maria Theresa. That princess, at the death of her 
father, beheld several princes disputing her accession ; 
The Hungarians remained faithful to her, and aided her 
in conquering (XVHI century) the throne. 

The sequel of the history of Hungary is that of the em- 
peror of Germany. 

NEAPOLITANS. 

The kingdom of Naples was subdued by tlie Romans 
from the earliest times of the republic. 

What is sai<l of Mary and Sigismund ?— Of Corvina-s ? — Of 
Matthias Corvinus? 

What produced coininual war in Hungary ? 

What is said of Ferdinand ?— Of Maximilian II ?— Of Char- 
les TV ?— Of Maria Theresa ? 

With what history is that of Hungary from this time 
blended ? . ^ ^ 

Under what dominion was Naples at an early period ? 



208 FIFTH PART. 

In the V century it became the prey of the Goths, and 
afterward of the Lombards, who possessed it until the 
time of Charlemagne, who conquered them and seized 
their territory. The successors of that prince divided it 
with the Greek emperors, who by little and little render- 
ed themselves completely masters of it. 

The Saracens dispossessed them of it in the IX and X 
centuries, and rendered themselves very powerful th.erc, 
until the epoch when the Normans took it from them. 

In the XI century, Tancred of Hauteville, a Norman 
lord, perceiving that he had a numerous family, sent his 
two elder sons into Italy to seek their fortune. These 
two chevaliers, named William, who was also called the 
Iron- Arm, aud Drogon, to whom one of their brothers, 
named Robert Guiscard, afterward joined himself, second- 
ed by many other lords, undertook to make war upon the 
Saracens. Robert Guiscard, who rendered himself so 
illustrious, gained great advantages over them. He left 
two sons, of whom the one named Roger had as his por- 
tion Apulia and Calabria. Such was the beginning of 
the kingdom of Naples. 

SICILIANS. 

Sicily, the largest of all the islands of the Mediterra- 
nean, was at first called Tritwcria, on account of its tri- 
angular figure. 

The Sicanii, or people of Spain, in passing by that 



Who seized upon it in the V century ? 

Who took it from them ? 

With whom did the successors of Charlemagne divide it? 

Did the Greek emperors finally obtain the whole of it? 

Who took it from them ? 

Who from the Saracens ? 

Who founded the kingdom of Naples? 

What was the early name of Sicily ? 

What names were given it by the Sicanii and the Sicules ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 209 

island, gave it the name of Sicaiii-a ; and the Siculi, a 
nation of Italy, wlio landed there after the Sicanii, changed 
its name into that of SlcUy. 

Sicily was peopled at different times by different Greek 
colonies. 

The Carthaginians afterward occupied the larger part 
of it ; but Syracuse, which was then the most powerful 
city of Sicily, was not under the dominion of Carthage; 
she had placed the sovereign authority in the hands of 
Gelon, after the victory which the latter won near Himera 
(to the south-west of Palermo), over the Carthagini- 
ans, commanded by Hamilcar. Hiero and Thrasybulus, 
the two brothers of Gelo, were placed successively upon 
the throne of Syracuse. 

After GO years of democracy, the two Dionysii, Timo- 
leon and Agathocles, commanded in that city, and go- 
verned it, some as tyrants, others as good princes. 

Sicily was for a long time the theatre of the war be- 
tween the Carthaginians and the Romans ; the latter re- 
mained peaceable possessors of it ; it was their first con- 
quest beyond the continent of Italy. In the decay of the 
Roman Empire, Sicily, like many other states, became 
the prey of tlie barbarians ; it was invaded and pillaged 
by Genseric, king of the Vandals, in 439 and 440. 

Belisarius re-took it in 554 ; but that conquest was not 
long retained by the emperors of the East. 



By whom was it firsi peopled ? 

Who occupied the greater part of it after the Greeks ? 
Who governed Syracuse ? 

What'is said of his victory over the Caithagenians ? — Of 
his two brothers ? 

Who governed it after the democracy? 
Of what was it for a long time the tlieatre ? 
What is said of the Roman possession of it ? 
What befel it in the decline of the empire ? 
Who re-captured it ? 
Was it lonff retained ? 



210 FIFTH PART. 

The Saracens captured it from them in 827, ajiti tlicir 
governors, who were called c/iiirs^ maintained ihei^iselves 
at Palermo until they were driven out by the Normans. 

KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES. 

In 1074, Roger, one of the sons of Tancred, and uncle 
of Roger, the master of Naples, possessed himself of 
Sicily. At his death he left two sons, of whom the one, 
called Roger II, took possession of Apulia and Calabria 
alter the death of William, a descendant of Robert Guir3- 
card ; so that the two kingdoms, of Naples and Sicily 
v/ere united in 1129, and took the name of the kingdom 
of the Two Sicilies. This state passed from the Norman 
princes to the imperial house of Suabia. Constance, the 
last princess, daughter of Roger, and heiress of the two 
kingdoms, brought them in marriage to Henry VI, son 
of the emperor Barbarossa. 

The branch of Suabia being extinct in 126G, after tlie 
dt^ath of the bastard Manfred, its last possessor, the Pope 
Urban IV gave the investiture of the kingdom of the 
Two Sicilies to Charles of France, Count of Anjou, bro- 
ther of Saint Louis, whose descendants possessed the 
crown of Naples during 120 years. 

It was under the reign of Charles of Anjou that the 
Sicilians massacred all the French at the hour of vesper's 
on Easter Sunday, in 1282; this massacre is known by 
the name of the SlcUlari Vesjjcrs. 

In 1384, Jane I, the last scion of the first branch of 
Anjou, adopted by her testament Louis I, Duke of Anjou, 
son of King John. At the same time, Charles de Duras, 



Who look it from the Emperor of the East ?— Who from the 
Saracens ? 

What is said of Roger ?— Of Roger II ? 

How did this state pass to the empire ? 

To whom were the Sicilies driven by Urban ? — 

What is said of the Sicilian Vespers? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 211 

cousin of that queen, establi.sliec] himself on the throne 
of Naples, a circumstance which occasioned between 
these two princes, and even between their successors, a 
protracted war. The posterity of the Count de Duras 
maintained themselves there, notwithstanding the preten- 
sions of the successors of the Count of Anjou, who also 
bore the title of kings of Naples. 

Jane II, the last princess of the blood of Duras, 
appointed for her heir Rene d' Anjou, a prince of the 
second branch of Anjou, the issue of King John, a fact 
which gave to the house a double right to that king- 
dom. Rene was not able to preserve it. 

Alphonso, king of Arragon and Sicily, took it from him 
in 1442. From that time the two kingdoms of Naples 
and Sicily were re-united in one government. 

The kings of Spain preserved it until 1707. 

At that epoch the kingdom of the Two Sicilies was 
ceded by Philip V, king of Spain, to the house of 
Austria, in the person of Charles VI, the emperor, v/ho 
lost it in 1734. 

It was taken by Don Carlos, son of Philip V, to whom 
it was ceded by the treaty of Vienna, in 1736. That prince 
having been called to the throne of Spain in 1759, one 
of his sons succeeded him, under the name of Ferdinand 
IV. This last, after having been driven from his domin- 
ions in 1805, was re-established in his kingdom in 1814, 
by the aid of Austria, and recognized, by an article of the 
congress of Vienna, as king of the Two Sicilies. He 
die«l in 1826. His grandson, Ferdinand II, succeeded 
him Nov. 8»^^. 1830. 

What were the consequences of the testament of Jane I? 

What is said of Jane II ? 

What is said of the Spanish DoDnnion ? 

To whom were the Sicilies ceded by Philip V ? 

By whom was that kingdom re-taken? — Who succeeded 
him"? — Through what vicissitudes did he pass? — Who was his 
6 accessor ? 



212 FIFTH PART. 



PORTUGUESE. 



In the V century the Suevi got possession, from the 
Romans, of the Spanish province called Lusitania. The 
Goths took it from the Suevi, and retained it until the 
VIII century, when the Moors took possession of it. 

In the XI century, Alplionso VI, king of Leon and 
Castile, requested of Philip I, king of France, assistance 
a2:ainst the Moors, who had invaded his dominions. 

Hennj of Btirgundy, great-grandson of Robert I, and 
Raymond of Burgundy, offered their aid to the Spanish 
monarch, who gave to the first his natural daughter The- 
resa, with all the states which he could conquer from the 
Moors, from Porto to Guadiana, and his daughter Ura. 
qua to the second, that is to say, to Raymond. 

Henry defeated the Saracens in seventeen battles, and 
gave to the country which he had conquered the name of 
Portugal (Portocalo); but his son, who rendered him- 
self more famous than his father, is regarded as the first 
king of Portugal ; this was Alplwnso Henriquez. The 
Portuguese have been governed, down to our own time 
(18^7), by three families : 

Fir^t. That of Burgundy, whose first king was Alphon- 
60 Henriquez, XII century (1139). 

Secondly. That of Acis, whose first king was John T, 
XIV century (1383). 



Who took Lusitania from the Romans in the V century ? 

Who took it froiu the Suevi ? 

How long did the Goths retain it? 

Who then took possession of it? 

What negotiations between Alphonso VI and the Prince of 
Burgundy ? 

AVhat is said of Henry ? — Of his son? 

How many families have reigned in Portugal ? 

Who wa> the first king of the house of Burgundy ?— Of the 
house of Avis ? 



IIISTOITICAL SKETCHES. 213 

Thirdly. That of Bragaiiza, whose first king was John 
VI, XVII century (1040). 

Between the two families last mentioned the Spaniards 
governed Portugal during GO years. 

The family of Burgimdy had for its head Alphonso 
Ihnriquez, who vanfjuished, in the plains of Ouriqua 
(Alentejo), five Moorish princes, from whom he took 
their five standards. It was in this century that the 
famous Roderigo Diaz lived, who was surnamed the Cid, 
that is to say, head or chief, on account of his valor 
(1139). 

The principal successors of Alphonso : 

Dionynius, who was justly called the father of his 
country, for he encouraged the arts, commerce and agri- 
culture (1279). 

Alphon-fo IV (XIV century), who ordered the assassi- 
nation of Inez do Castro, mistress of his son, Peter the 
Justiciary. That young prince succeeded him ; he caused 
Inez to be exhumed, crowned her, and transported her 
to the royal tomb, after having sacrificed her enemies 
(1325). 

Under the family oi Acts, we notice John /, natural son 
of Peter the Justiciary, who fixed the crown upon his 
head by the victory of JIhjuharotta, and the memory of 
whom is still dear to the Portuguese (1385). 

John II, his great-grandson, surnamed Augustus. It 
was he who refused to furnish vessels to Columbus 
(1481). 

Emmanuel the Great (XV and XVI centuries), whose 
reign was the golden age of Portugal. Under this prince 

"Who was the first king of the house of Braganza? 

Who governed Porrugal between the two last houses ? 

What is said of the battle of Alentejo ?— Of the Cid? 

Who were the principal successors of Alphonso? 

Can you give the historv of Dionysius ?— Of Alphonso IV ? 
—Of Peter the Justiciary "?— Of John II?— Of Emmanuel the 
Great ? 



214 FIFTH TAUT. 

Va.tco dc Gama tloubied the cape of Good Hope ; Alva- 
rez Cahral (liscoverod Brazil, and the general Alhuqi/xr- 
quc immortaHzed the Portuguese name in the Indies. 

JoJm III, son and successor of Enfimanuol, establishcH 
the inquisition. 

At the death of Henry the Cardinal, his brother (1580), 
many princes disputed with each other the throne of Por- 
tuo-al ; the king of Spain, Philip II, obtained it by force 
of arms. 

Under the Sj^cousJi dominion, the yoke of Spain and 
the tyranny of lier kings became insupportable to the Por- 
tuguese, from whom the Hollariders took many places in 
Africa, the Indies and America. 

Under the Family of Braganza, we notice : 

First, John IV, surnamed the Fortunate. He owed 
the crown to the genius of his w^ife, Louisa de Guzman, 
whose regency, under the minority of Alphonso VI, was 
Orlorious for Portun-al. The victory of ViUaviciosa was 
the termination of the quarrel with the Spaniards, which 
for 2S years had agitated the two nations. 

Secondly, Fdcr II, usurper of the throne of his brother 
(XVII century), whose wife, Mary of Nemours, he 
espoused. He enjoyed a firm and glorious reign, and 
took up arms against France, in the war of the Spanish 
succession, in 1700. 

Thirdly, Joseph I, in whose reign tlie earthquake of 
Lisbon took place, in 1755. The IMarquis of Ponibal, his 
minister, is celebrated for the expulsion of the Jesuits; 
Joseph was assassinated in 1759 ; in 1762 the Spaniards 
made an invasion into Portugal, and were repulsed by 
the Count de La Lippe. 



Can you oive the history of John III? 

Ilow'did Philip II obtain the throne of Portugal? 

Was the Spanish dominion acce]it;ible to the Portujifiie.'^e ? 

Wl:at is <aid of John IV ?~0f Peter II?— Of Joseph I? 



iriSTORICAL SKETCHES. 215 

Fourthly. Maria Fra}fces Isahella, daughter of Joseph ; 
she espoused her uncle, Peter III, to preserve the crowu 
in the house of Eraganzn. During her ilhiess, Johv., 
prince of Brazil, was regent of Portugal ; he found him- 
self obliged to retire to Brazil in 1S07, at the approach 
of the French army, but tlieir general, Mossena, could 
not retain Portugal, which returned under the power of 
the prince of Brazil. 

Fifthly. John, at the death of his mother, 20"> of March, 
131G, acquired the title of king and the name of John Vi. 
Jn Europe the reign of that prince was stormy; and, in 
America, Brazil declared itself independent. In Portu- 
gal two powerful parties shook the kingdom : the Con- 
stitutionals and the Absolutists, at whose head was found 
Don IMiguel, son of the king, and of the queen mother, 
Charlotte of Spain. John VI died in 1826, and -after his 
death Portugal was a prey to all the revolts which spring 
from the spirit of party. The usurpation of Don Miguel 
appeared to have put the finishing stroke to the misfortune 
of that country. Maria II is at present on the throne 
(1817), to which she came May 2^^^ 1826. 

EOIIEMIAXS. 

Boheiaia, to the west of Hungary, was originally peo- 
pled by a colony of the Boiae, which left Gaul in the VI 
century, before J. C. to establish themselves in that 
country, and it was from this people it took its name. 

The Mar'comanni (a nation of Germ.any), drove out tho 
BoiiD, and established themselves in the country which 
they had occupied. 



What is said of Maria Frances Isabella ?— Of John as re- 
gent ?— Of John as kino;?— Of Don Miguel ?— Of Maria II ? 
Whence did Bohemia derive its name ? 
Who drove out ihe Boiae ? 



216 FIFTH PART. 

Towards tlie end of the V century ihc Marcomanni 
were driven out in their turn by the Esclavonians, (a 
people who came from the environs of the Baltic Sea), 
whose chief was named Zcch, It was the latter who 
cleared up the country, then covered with forests. 

The successors of Zeck are unknown, until after the 
year 632, at which time a virtuous princess reigned, call- 
ed Libussa, who married Premislas, a simple laborer. 
This new prince showed himself worthy of the throne, 
and made some very good laws. He began to reign in 
632, and died in 676. His daughter succeeded him. 

In 950 Bohemia became tributary to the Empire. 
The sovereigns of Bohemia bore the title of dukes until 
1061, when the Emperor Henry IV gave the name of 
king to Uratislas II, who was the eighteenth duke. 

After the death of Louis II, who was slain in a battle 
in 1526, the crown of Bohemia passed to the house of 
Austria, in the person o^ Ferdinand I, who had espoused 
the sister of that prince, and from being elective, as it 
had been before, it became hereditary in this house, 
which still 2^ossesses it. 

SWISS. 

Switzerland, anciently called Helvetia^ was subdued by 
Julius Caesar, and remained under the dominion of the 
Romans during nearly five centuries. 



Who expelled ihe Marcomanni ? 
Who cleared up the country? 

What is said of the successors of Zeck ? — Of Libussa and 
Premislas ? 

What happened to Bohemia in 950 ? 

What is said ofUratislas?— Of Louis II?— Of Ferdinand I ? 

What is said of the crown after Ferdinand ? 

What was the ancient name of Switzerland ? 

By whom v\^as it subdued ? 

How long did it continue und&r the Roman dominion ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 217 

When the barbarous nations threw themselves upon 
the empire, the Burgundians and Suevi fell upon Helve- 
tia and divided it. 

Towards the middle of the VI century the French 
made themselves masters of the whole country conquered 
by these two nations, and Helvetia became a province of 
the French empire. 

Towards > the end of the IX century Switzerland was 
re-united to Germany. 

In the XIV century, the Emperor Albert, son of Ru- 
dolph of Hapsburg, wishing entirely to subdue the can- 
tons of Schwitz, Underwald and Uri, which still pre- 
served a remnant of liberty, treated them very rudely in 
order to drive them to revolt, and have by this means an 
opportunity of reducing them to slavery. He established 
there two governors, who, in furtherance of his views, 
acted in a manner the most tyrannical, to such a degree 
that GesJer, one of them, demanded that the same hon- 
ors should be rendered to his cap, which he exposed in 
the public square, at the top of a pike, as to his own per- 
son ; such a course of conduct did, in fact, excite mur- 
murs ; but the consequences did not answer to the 
expectations of the emperor. Williayn Tell refused^ to 
obey the order of the governor. As a punishment, Ges- 
ler condemned him to strike down, with an arrow, an 
apple placed upon the head of his only son, or to be be- 
headed with him, if he failed of his stroke. William 
Tell took two arrows ; as he was an excellent archer, he 
struck down the apple with the first without touching his 
•on, and turning himself towards the governor, he said to 
him : The second icas far you if I had been so uvfortunate 



Who next took possession of it? 

When did Helvetia become a part of the French empire ? 
When was it restored to Germany ? 

What is said of the eovernment of Albert? — Of his minister 
Gesler?— Of William Tell ? 

10 



213 FIFTH PAHT. 

as to kill m>j son. Geslcr, enraged at his Ix^lJncss, em- 
barked witli hiui on the lake of Lucerne, in order tv> 
conducL liim to liis cattle ; bat V^'illiain Ttdl escaped from 
liis haiid, and slew him in a defile wl:ere be lay in wait 
lor liim. 

The three oppressed cantons united logetljer, placed 
Wilhani Tell at their head, and put to flight the impe- 
rial <rovernor, with all his suite, whom the}- conducted 
out of tlic country : this was the first signal of iudepeii- 
dence (1308). 

The three other heroes of this revolution are : fir.-.t, 
Arnold de MclchUil; secondly, M^crner ; thirdly, Wal- 
fi'r Fiirst. 

The three cantons immediately formed a league for ten 
years. The emperor Albert marched against them; but 
he was assassinated by one of his nephews at the passage 
of th.c Rcuss, which gave these cantons time to fake their 
measures. Th.e duke Leopold having come to attack ihem, 
they cut his army in pieces, in a little place called Mor- 
gartcn, although they were only 1500 in number, and 
their enemies were 20,000. This day became as cele- 
brated in the annals of the Helvetian republic as that of 
Thermopylc^e in those of Greece. The Helvetians made n 
j)erpetual alliance among themselves, and took the name of 
Swiss, from the most important of the three canton,^. 

The principal \vars which the Swiss had to maintain 
afterwards were: first, against Charles the Rash, duke of 
Burgundy, whom they vanquished at the famous battle of 
Morat {IA7G); secondly, against Maximilian, emperor of 
Germany; thirdly, against each other, divided by the doc- 
tiines of the nformcr Zwingle, curate of Glaris. Cuppd 

What coarse wys puri»aetl by tlie three oppressed cantons ? 
— Who WQXi: the other heroes of the Swiss revolution ?— What 
is said of Albert ?— What took place at Morgarten ?— Whence 
originated tlio name of Swiss ?—Wljat war's were afterwards 
carried on by the Swiss? 



IIISTOKICAL SKETCHES. 219 

was tiie theatre of the first combats between the reformed 
and tlio papibt6 ; Zvvingle perished there, and his party 
was worsted. 

Meanwhile the other cantons united themselves in suc- 
cession to those of Schwitz, Uri and Unterwalden, and 
Switzerland reckons at the present clay twenty-two of 
them, 

Tims was formed that singular republic, divided into 
cantons independent of one another, but united for the 
common defence. 

The house (;f Austria for a long time made great exer- 
tions to recover its dominion over the Swiss ; but it did 
not succeed, and at tlie peace of Westidialia, in 1648, 
their independence was recognised. 

Since that time Svvitzcrlaiid has followed the destiny 
of Europe. Tlie French army occupied it in 1798 and 
1790, and Napoleon imposed upon it a new constitution. 
In 1S14 the allies, not consenting to recognise its neu- 
trality, traversed it for the purpose of penetrating into 
France. The congress of Vienna put an end to all the 
dissensions of this country, by assigning to the confede- 
racy its rights, its limits, and its duties. 



Secondary i^atious. 

OF THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGE. 

The Venetians. Venice was founded in the V century 
by the Vcnedi, who, on the arrival of Attila, king of the 
Huns, took refuge at the mouth of the Po. They estab- 

How many cantons doc3 Switzerland contain at present ? — 
What 13 the nature of the Swiss league? — What efTorts wero 
made by the house of Austria ? — What took place at the peace 
of Westphalia? — What is said of the French occupancy of that 
rountry ? — Did the allies in 1814 recognize its neutrality? — 
How did the congress of Vienna terminate its divisions ? — By 
whom and on wliat occasion was Venice founded ? 



220 FIFTH PART. 

lished there some cabins, and the city became large and 
powerful in after times. 

Each island was at first governed by a tribune of its 
own. They wore afterwards united under a single chief, 
called a doge. The first doge was Favl Anafesto (VII 
century), 697. 

The dogeship was for life, and depended upon the suf- 
frages of the community. The doge was a veritable mon- 
arch ; but by little and little the authority of this duke 
was restricted, and the government of Venice became de- 
mocratic. 

Venice was soon enriched by commerce : she acquired 
a power and superiority which frequently excited the 
jealousy of her neighbors, and stirred up wars against her. 

The crusades increased tliat republic, and the fourth 
especially, by dismembering the Greek empire, rendered 
her mistress of many ports o^ Albania, Greece and the 
Morca ; she ruled even in the islands of Corfu, Cepha- 
lonia, Candia, &c. 

But in the X[II century (1:298), the establishment of 
the hereditary aristocracy occasioned groat commotions. 
The revolt of one of the Venitians named Ticopolo and 
his partisans, v/ho desired tlie re-establishment of the an- 
cient form of government (1310), provoked the appoint- 
ment of the Council of Ten, a severe tribunal, and a for- 
midable support of the nobles. 

Tlie discoveries of the XV century injured the com- 
merce of Vc?iice, but at the same time gave that city more 
tranquility, by terminating the jealousy against her. 
. The French made themselves masters of her in 1797, 

What form of government was first established there? — 
What is said of the origin and nature of the dogeship ? — Of the 
^kmocracy ? — By v/hat means was Venice rendered rich and 
powerful ? — What cirecthad the crusades upon her? — What is 
said of the hereditary aristocracy and Tieopolo ? — Of the 
council of Ten ? — What effect in Venice had the discoveries 
of ihe XV century ? — When did the French take possegsion of 
Veni(!e ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 221 

and obliged the doge to betake himself to flight. By tho 
treaty of Campo Formio she was ceded to the Emperor 
of Austria. 

By the treaty of Presburg, Venice was restored to Boua- 
■partc, who gave her to Prince Eugene de Beauharnais, 
but in 1814 she reverted to Austria, and forms at present 
the second capital of the Lomhardo Venitian kino-dom. 

The Genoese. Destroyed by Hannibal, rebuilt by the 
consul Spurias, Genoa was subdued by the Goths, from 
whom the Lombards took her. Almost entirely destroy- 
ed hi these conflicts, she was rebuilt by Charlemagne, who 
annexed her to the French empire. In the X century she 
was taken by the Saracens, who, having put all the men 
to the sword, carried away the women and children into 
Africa. 

Re-established for the third time, her inhabitants devo- 
ted themselves to commerce, grew lich, and having be- 
come haughty and powerful in proportion to theii- wealth, 
erected themselves into a republic, which was soon in a 
condition to give assistance to christian princes, in the 
lime of the crusades. 

The Pisans declared war against her; but she still 
pursued her advantages. The enthusiasm of liberty final- 
ly rendered this republic capable of the greatest things; 
she succeeded in reconciling the opulence of commerce 
\vith superiority in arms. 



To whom was she ceded by the treaty of Campo Formio? — 
By the treaty of Presburg ? — When did she return to Austria ? 
— What were the early vicissitudes of Genoa? — By whom was 
she annexed to the French empire ? — When was she captured 
by the Saracens? — How did they treat her citizens? — How 
were her inhabitants employed after her restoration? — What 
effect had their growing opulence upon them ? — How did they 
change their political organization ? — What is said of them 
during the crusades? — Wliat people declared war against 
(jenoa? — With what results? — What effect did the enthusiasm 
of liberty produce upon her ? 



222 FlI'TII TAKT. 

The jealousy and ambition ol' her cilizcns afterward 
excited great comniotions, in which the emperors, the 
kings of Naples, the Visconti, the marfjuis of Montferrat, 
the Slbrza and the French, invited successively by differ- 
ent parties who divided the republic, took part. Finally, 
Andrew Doria (1528) had the good fortune and ability to 
unite their minds, and established among them the aristo- 
cratic i^orm of government. He might have taken posses- 
sion of the sovereignty ; but he conlented himself with 
having established the liberty of his country. 

In these flourishing times Genoa possessed many is- 
lands of the Archipelago, and several cities on the coasts 
of Greece and on the shores of the Black Sea. She held 
even Pora, one of the suburbs of Constantinople ; but the 
enlargement of the Ottoman power considerably weak- 
ened her commerce in the Levant. 

The conspiracy o^ Fieschi against the liberty of Genoa 
(IS^V) had no result, and that country preserved its inde- 
pendence and its government niuil JiiG, when it ^vW into 
the power of the Austrian^. 

Genoa succeeded in extricating lierself by the assist- 
ance of France, to v/hicli she ceded Corsica in 1768. 
From that time she ceased to be an European power; 
raised again for a moment, in 179G, under the name 
of the Ligarian RepuUlc, afterwards united to the 
French empire, she was ceded, in 1814, to the king ot* 
Sardinia. 

The Tuscans. Tuscany remained subject to the Ro- 
mans until the invasion of the barbarians (V century).- 

It then passed to the Goths and the Lombards, who 



What commotions resulted /Vom the joaloii=;v nnd ambition 
of her citizens? — What is said of Ai'ib(}\v Doria? — Whfii 
territories did she possess at this time? — What is said of the 
conspiracy of Fieschi? — Thron£jh what vicissirndos did (leiioa 
pass from 1547 to 1S14 ?— Ilow lonp: did Tuscatiy remain sub- 
ject to die Romans? — To whom did it then pass ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 223 

2>lacecl there dukes, who were removable, that is, liable 
to be recalled or deposed by those wlio liad appointed 
tliem, 

Oliarleinagiie sulijectcd Tus(::any to counts (VIII cen- 
tury). Louis the Debonairc siibbiitutod for them mar- 
(juises (IX century); they began the seiies of the suv- 
erelgti.s of Tuscany. 

The countess Matihla (XI and XII centuries) made a 
donation of Tuscany to the holy see; alter her death the 
j)ope.s cxpcrieuccd the greatest obstacles to the full en- 
joyment of this gift oii the part of the emperors, vviio pre- 
tended still to retain a right of sovereignty over Tuscany, 
and who wished at that tinjc to render themselves masters 
i»f iC; this was the origin of the G ucljj^is and Gkihhduu's, 
names which designated the party of the popes ajid that 
of tlie emperors. 

In the XII century, Tuscany, fatigued by this struggle, 
erected herself into a republic. The government experi- 
enced many variations ; civil wars, and e.'specialiy thoso 
between the Florentines and Lucchese, desolated this 
beautiful country 

* The Florentines wese divided iaito dilierent brnlies of 
tiadesmen ; the family of the Medici, which belonged to 
llie body of merchants, began to distinguish itself by its 
moderation and itn partiality, and acquired great consid- 
eiation (XV century). 

Cosmo, son of John i\<i Medicis, was the lirst who ex- 
ercised an inHucnce upon the government. He was by 
turns persecuted, banished, and afterward honorably re- 



Wliat changes of lit-r form of governmrnl under the Godis 
and Lombards?— Under CiKulemau'nc ?— -Under Louis tho 
Debonniie ? — What is said of tlie donation cf th<; eounless 
Maiilda ?— To what great parties did it give rise?— When and 
why did Tuscany become a republic ?— By wh.at was Tns- 
cixuv desolated?— -Into what \v.,re ilie Florentines divided?— 
Wl)at is said of the (amily cf liic McJiei ?— Of Cotmo? 



224 FIFTH PART. 

called. He received the title of Father of hu country 
(I4;i4). 

We remark among his successors : 

First, Lmvrence T and Julian, who were appointed by 
their fellow citizens princes of the republic. The Pazzi 
conspired against them. Julian was assassinated in a 
church; Lawrence escaped. 

Secondly, Leo X (John de Medicis), pope in 1513. 
Protector of letters and the fine arts, he gave his name 
to his century. The indulgences which he published in 
favor of those who contributed to the expense of building 
the great church of Saint Peter were the immediate oc- 
casion of the reformation of Luther. 

Thirdly, Clement VII, pope. He leagued with the 
French against Charles Fifth. His refusal to confirm 
the repudiation of Gatitarine of Arragon, wife of Henry 
Vni, caused the separation of England from Rome 
(1534). 

Fourthly, Catharine de Medicis, daughter of Lawrence 
and Margaret of Bologna ; she married Henry II, king 
of France* 

Fifthly, Mary de Medicis, daughter of Fraricis I and 
Jane of Austria ; she married Henry IV, king of France. 

This family continued to reign in Tuscany, and pro- 
duced many great men. They protected letters and the 
arts. 

Gaston de Medicis, the last of the family, having no 
children, disposed of his dominions in favor of Francis, 
duke of Lorraine (1737). 

After the war of Poland the powers concerned decreed 
that Tuscany should be given to Francis of Lorraine, and 



What is said of Lawrence I and Julian ? — Of Leo X ? — Of 
Clement VI[ ?— Of Catliarine de Medicis ?— Of Mary de Me- 
dicis ? — What is said of the patronage of the arts? — Of Gaston 
de Mediris? — What disposal was made of Tuscany at the 
close of the Polish war ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 225* 

that Lorraine should belong to Stanislaus Leczinski, to 
be afterward reunited to France. Tuscany then remain- 
ed in the house of Austria ; but, during the revolution in 
France the French made a conquest of it. In 1801 it 
was raised into a monarchy, under the name of the king- 
dom of Etruria, in favor of prince Louis, duke of Parma, 
the infant of Spain. After the death of that prince, in 
1803, it was reunited to the French empire. In 1S14, 
Tuscany was restored to Austria under the name of the 
arch-duchy. 

The Parmesafis and Placcntians. After the destruc- 
tion of the Roman empire these States shared the fate 
of the other countries of Italy; they afterward passed to 
Pepin, son of Charlemagne; but in the XII century they 
raised themselves into a republic. 

The Guelphs and the Ghibellines desolated this coun- 
try ; the misunderstanding which reigned between the 
nobles and the people was productive of no less ravage. 

In the XVI century tlie popes adjudged these States 
to belong to themselves, by virtue of the gift which Char- 
lemagne had made of them to the holy see ; Leo X 
abandoned them to Frances I, and resumed them after 
the misfortunes of that sovereign; filially Paul III made 
them pass to Peter Louis Farnese, his son; it is at this 
pri.'ice that the series of the dukes of Parma and Placen- 
tia begins (1545). 

Ociavius Farnese, son of Louis, inherited only Parma, 
the emperor having possessed himself of Placentia. 

Alexander, his son, was replaced in possession of the 
entire duchy (156S). He was one of the greatest cap- 



What befel it during the French revolution? — In 1801 ? — 
After the death of prince Louis?— In 1614?— What political 
changes in Parma and Placentia until the republic?— By what 
factions were these countries desolated ? — Through what sub- 
sequent changes did they pass until 1.545 ?— What is said of 
Ociavius Farnese? — Of Alexander? 
10* 



226 FIFTH PART. 

tains of iho XVI century ; he was made governor of llio 
revolted Low Countiies; he had espoused Maria, the 
grand-daughter of Ernamid the Great, king of Portugal, 
who brought him certain rights to the crown of that 
country. Force decided the question in favor of Philip, 
king of Spain, in 1580. 

After the death of duke Anthony, the last of the Far- 
nese, the imperial troops seized upon his dominions as 
vacant fiefs of the empire. 

Meanvy'liile Don Carlos, son of Philip V, king of Spain, 
obtained possession of them and ceded them to his bro- 
ther, Don Philip. On becoming king of Naples, Philip 
left them to Ferdinand, his son. 

At present these two States are governed by the arch- 
duchess, Maria Louisa, in virtue of the act of the con- 
gress of Vienna (1814). 

The LuccJiCse. The city of Lucca held a distinguish- 
ed rank under the Roman emperors. It surrendered to 
Narses, the genej'al of Justinian, in the V centuiy. It was 
from that time governed by counts and marquisses until 
the XII century, when it recovered its liberty. 

War was declared in the XV^ century between llie 
Florentines and the Lucchese : Lucca sustained a siege, 
and afterward entered into an accomm.odation with tlie 
Florentines. 

She subsequently placed herself under the protection 
of the emperors. Conquered by the French in liie 
XVIII century, that city was afterward raised into a 
principality which belonged to the grand-duke of Tusca- 
ny, the brother of Frances, emperor of Austria, 



Wljat bcfel these countries after tlie (lea<}u)f duke Anthony ? 
—What is said of Don Carlos?— Of Don Philip ?— Of Ferdi- 
nand? — Of their present government ? — Through v.'lial politi- 
cal changes has Lucca passed? 



IliSTOKICAT. «KETCIIi:S. 227 

Tlic J'laJciCse. The tiiicby of jSIodoia made a part 
©t' Cisalpiiic Criiul. It undoivvent the same rcvulutioiis 
as all tlio north oi' Italy. The Romans iiiaao tlicmselves 
rrsastcrs ofit in the third ccntary before J. C It passed 
to the barbarians, the Lombards, the French, oiiil tl.c 
Cjerinaus. From the time of" the divisions of the Guelpiss 
and Gh.ibbelines, many sovereignties arose in Italy, of 
which Modenawas one of the most considerable. It \va,.s 
i'ormed by the liouse oi' Este, in the XIII centviry, and be- 
came a d'.ichy in the XV. 

Alphouso II, in the XVI century, son of JJj/kon^o I, 
being dead without children, the succession of this duchy 
was bequeathed to Caesar, of the yi.>unger branch, and 
grandson of Alphonso I. 

Ciesar experienced opposition in his new dominion on 
the j)art of Clement VllI, and ended by ceding to Ihtu 
the district of Ferrara, wliich was united to the states ot 
llie Church. The duke fixed himself at Modena. 

llercuhs RcHaidt iVEste, in the XVIII century, had 
only one daughter, who married a prince of the house ol 
Austria, to which Modena and Iveggio are revertible. 

The Raui'ivzcsi'. Ravenna. VVijcn the barbarians had 
rendered themselves masters of Italy, the emperors of the 
I^Jast sent thither from time to time generals for the main- 
tenance of their rights, 

Tiie "-cneral, Js''arses, having been called home in 5CS, 
lj<infnnus took his place and established himself at Raven- 
na witli the title of exarch. He was afterward recalled. 
Many generals were sent thither in succession, and bore 
llic same title, 

Ltatpraiid, king of the Lombards, got possession of 
Ravenna in 726, under the exarch Paul; but that gov- 
ernor, with the assistance of the Pope and of Venice, re- 
took it the following year. 

Can you give the history of i^Iodena ?— Of Ravenna? 



228 FIFTH PART. 

It was finally taken by AstolpJius, king of the Lom- 
bards, from Eutychcs, the last of the exarchs, who was 
driven from Italy and obliged to return to Constantinople. 

Two years afterwards, Pepin, king of France, compell- 
ed Astolphus to give that city to the Pope, a donation 
which Charlemagne confirmed by adding to it new terri- 
tories. Ravenna has followed the revolutions of Italy ; 
it made a part of the French empire under Napoleon, and 
is at the present day comprised among the states of the 
Church. 

The Milanese. The city of Milan, already powerful 
in the time of the Romans, and even before being subject 
to them, became the prey of the barbarians who succeed- 
ed one to another in Italy after the fall of the empire. 
After Charlemagne, the Archbishops of Milan enjoyed the 
sovereignty ; in the X century the people shook off the 
yoke of the Prelates. Hostilities continued some time 
longer. In the XII century the imperial officers were 
driven out, and Milan became a republic. 

The emperor Frederic Barbarossa, being irritated by 
this expulsion of his functionaries, turned his arms against 
the Milanese, subdued them and destroyed their city, 
which was afterward re-built more splendidly than ever. 

After having withdrawn themselves from the dominion 
of the emperors, the Milanese gave themselves a chief in 
the person of Martin della Torre, who expelled the 
Nobles and the Archbishop (1257). The Torriani united 
in themselves all the authority ; but their power did not 
last long : it ended with Napoleon de la Torre in 12G5. 

The family of Visconti, which descended from Mathew 
Visconti, nephew of the Archbishop, succeeded to the 
Torriani, in the XIII century (1295). We notice among 
these princes JoJui Galeas, first duke of Milan and father 
of Valentine Visconti, who by his marriage-connexion 

lat account is given of the Milanese ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 229 

with Louis of Orleans, brought into the house of France 
rights which were rendered available at a later period, 
and which caused the wars of Italy under Charles Vill, 
Louis XII and Francis I. 

The branch of the Visconti was extinguished in Philip- 
Maria, brother of Gfaleas ; his general, Bussoni, called 
Carmagnole, betrayed him in favor of the Venitians, who 
still put the traitor to death. Another general, Francij^ 
Sforza, having married 5/a«c//e, daughter of Philip, be- 
came heir of the duchy of Milan. His family reigned 
there until Francis I divested of it Maximilian Sforza, 
who died by assassination in 1530. Charles V possessed 
himself of it in his turn, restored it to Sforza, again in- 
herited it, and left it in his house, in which it remained 
until 1714, when it was ceded to Austria. 

In 1797 Milan became the metropolis of the Cisalpine 
republic, established by the French, and in 1804 the capi- 
tal of a new kingdom of Italy. In 1814 that city re- 
turned to Austria and is become the capital of the Lom- 
bardo-Venitian kingdom. 

IN ASIA. 

• Jerusalem. The christians of Europe, sensible to the 
fiufferings which their captive brethren among the infidels 
or Mohammedans in Palestine endured, undertook the 
conquest of the Holy Land in 1095, at the Council of 
Clermont. 

All the princes of Europe sent thither troops, under 
iJie conduct of Godfrey of Bouillon, son of Eustache, 
duke of Boulogne. This generalissimo, having rendered 
himself master of Palestine, was chosen king of Jeru- 
salem. 

His descendants enjoyed the kingdom until 1187. At 
that epoch, Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, after hav- 

What account is Jiiven of the kingdom of Jerusalem ? 



230 FIFTH PAIIT. 

ing gainod many uJvarUages over the clirisLians, defeated 
Guy of Lusignan at the battle of Tiberias, and made him- 
self master of Jerusalem, which had endured as a king- 
dv)ra eighty years, under nine kings. 

Meanwhile the French still possessed certain territories 
along the coasts of Syria, until 1291, when Melck-Araf, 
eultan of Egypt, completely drove them out, after having 
made himself master of the city of Acre, whicii had re- 
mained theirs. 

IRl.VCIPAL NATIONS OF THE ISLANDS OF THE 
MEDITERRANEAN SEA. 

Aich'tpelago of the Baharcs. The Greeks called those 
islands GymncsioB, because their inhabitants went naked ; 
tliey called them also Balcares, from a word which signi- 
fies to ihrow^ on account of the address of the inhabitants 
in managing the sling. 

The Carthaginians made war for a long time against 
the BalcareSy and Cassar employed them advantageously 
against the Gauls. In the V century the Vandals took 
possession of the Balearic isles, and, in the Vill the 
Moors established themselves there ; but the latter were 
driven out, in 1259, by James I, king of Arragon. This 
archipelago belongs at present to Spain. 

The Corsicans. Corsica has pertained successively to 
the Carthaginians, the Romans, the Vandals, the Goths, 
the Lombards, the Saracens, and the French, under 
Charles Mattel j to the Colonna (a Roman fainily), in the 
VIII century; to the popes, the Pisans, the Genoese and 
the kings of Arragon. The Genoese finally got possessiou 
of the island. But the Corsicans supported the yoke of 
Genoa only impatiently. During the foui^centuries that 
the Genoese dominion lasted, they tried several times to 

What is s.iid of the Archipelago of the Balearcs? — Of the 
Corsicans ? 



IlISTOKICAL SKETCHES. Sr^l 

"withdraw themselves from it ; but in vain. They fol- 
lowed the destiny of Genoa, and passed with it to the 
French, the Milanese and the Neapolitans. 

A revolt having broken out in 1729, the Genoese called 
the Imperialists to their assistance in subduing the rebels; 
the Imperialists came in fact and caused an accommodation 
to be signed in 1734, the conditions of which were not 
obeyed. 

Aided by the disturbances which prevailed among 
them, a German baron, called NcwhoJ\ spoke of liberty to 
tlic Corsicans and succeeded in causing himself to be 
proclaimed king; but on his return from a voyage to 
Holland, ho found the island in the power of the French, 
Avhom the Genoese had called thither. J\'ew/i(,^' ^cd into 
England, where he died. 

A new sedition speedily broke out ; the French were 
sent for again. In 1761 the attempt was made to pacify 
Corsica; but she declared that she wished no master. 
ThiO Genoese took the part of ceding her to France, of 
which at present she forms >a department. 

Paoli, whom the Corsicans had chosen for their gen- 
eral, and who had tried to enfranchise them, was con- 
strained to take refuge in England. 

Sardi?ua. This island was originally peopled by the 
Phenicians, and afterward conquered by the Carthaginians, 
from whom the Ro.mans tO')k it in the ^rst jjunic war. 

In modern times it had been in the power of S|)ai!i 
until 1719, when it was ceded to the duke of Savoy, wh<^ 
bears the title of king of Sai'dinia, Cyi)rus and Jerusalem, 
and duke of Savoy. 

Candid. After the fall of the Roman empire Candia 
passed to the emperors of the East, who retained it until 
the commencement of the IX century (825). The apo.-5tle 
Paul is supposed to have introduced Christianity into the 

What is said of Sardinia 1 — Of Candia? 



232 FIFTH TART. 

island. The Arabs, who took possession of it in the IX 
century, were driven from it in the X. Afterward it pass- 
ed successively to the Genoese and the Venitians, the latter 
of whom possessed it nearly five centuries. In the XVII 
century the Turks made themselves masters of it, after a 
disastrous war of t\venty-four years; in 1669 ihcy secur- 
ed to themselves the possession of it by a treaty, and 
since then it has always remained in their power, notwitli- 
standing the troubles of the late wars. 

Rhodes. The Rhodians have performed a conspicuous 
part in history. They were the last to submit to the Ro- 
mans, under Vespasian (I century). The knights of Saint 
John of Jerusalem maintained themselves there at first, 
in spite of all the efforts of Mahomet II (XV century); 
but, besieged anew by the sultan Solyman the Great, in 
1523, they gave way to numbers and were buried beneath 
the ruins of their city. Rhodes has since shared the fate 
of all the nations of Greece : it belongs to the Turks. 

Cyprus. Cyprus was peopled by the Phenicians be- 
fore the Greek colonies came to settle there. It passed 
to the Macedonians, and to the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, 
from whom the Romans took it. After the fall of the 
Roman empire it was for some time occupied by ti^e 
Arabs ; but the Greek emperors drove them from it, and, 
during the crusades^ Richard I, king of England, took it 
from Isaac Comnenus, at the close of the XII centuiy 
(11^1), and ceded it to the house of Lusignan, to indem- 
nify that family for the throne of Jerusalem. At tlie death 
*of king John this island would have belonged to the king 
of Sardinia by the marriage of a prince of his house with 
an heiress of Lusigna?i: but that princess, in 1480, ceded 
the sovereignty of it to the Venitians, who were striptof it, 
in 1570, by the Turks, to whom it still belongs, although 
the kings of Sardinia entitle themselves kings of Cypni?. 



What i8 said of Rhodes?— Of Cyprus? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 233 

OBSERVATION. 

The pupil should make a synoptical table of these se^ 
condary nations, whose history cannot be easily seized by 
the memory or developed by means of questions, without 
increasing their number disproportionately to the relative 
importance of the nations themselves. He should write 
an analysis of them in lateral columns. 



Modem History. 

TURKS. 
BEFORE THE CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 

In the IX century the Turks or Turcomans emigrat- 
ed from Tartary in order to establish themselves in Ar- 
menia. From thence, some directed their course into 
Persia, others into the province of Bagdad. Disquieted 
by the other Tartar tribes, they withdrew themselves, in 
the XII century, into Asia Minor, which they had previ- 
ously conquered, and established the seat of their gov- 
ernment at Iconium. Osman, or Ottoman, one of their 
chiefs, united all the tribes under the same sceptre, hoist- 
ed the standard of Mahomet, took the title of sultan, and 
founded, iii 1300, the dynasty of tlie Turks, called from 
his name Osmanlis, or Ottomans. 

Among the successors of Osman, we notice Orkan 
(from 1323 to 1359), who founded the institution of the 
Janissaries; Amurath I {^vom 1358 to 1389), who was 
called from his victories, Gazile, or the Conqueror ; he 



What were the emigrations of the Turks in the IX century ? 
— Whai induced them to retire into Asia Minor ? — Where did 
they establish their seat of government? — What is said of Os- 
man or Ottoman ?— Of Orkan ?— Of Amurath I ? 



234 FIFTil PART. 

gained possession of Adrcanople, to iLe nortli of Cor.s'an- 
linople, and organized tiie Janissaries ; Bajazct /(13S9- 
1403), surnamed lldrchini or the T/uL-iJer, won great 
victories, but was vanquished at A?icf/ra by Tamerlane, 
\v!io, it is said, shut him up in an iron cage ; AmnratJi J I 
(from 1421 to 1451), who won a great victory at Varna 
over the Poles (1444) ; and linally Mahamct IT, the son 
of Amurath (from lAr>l to 1481), who maybe considered 
OS the second founder of the Ottoman grandeur; he tool-i 
Coustatitiriojdc by assault, on the 29^ of May, 14.S3, aud 
put an end to tlie Roman emiiirc of the East. 

AFTER THE CONQUEST OF CONSTAXTINOPLE. 

Among t!ie twenty-four saltans who have reigned since 
the conquest of Constantinople, we distinguish : 

Mahonut JI, of whom we have spoken. He made 
successively the conquest of Scrvia, the Morea, AtJwns, 
Trchizonde, Bosnia, Albania, and Negropont. 

Stiim /(from 1512 to 1520), surnamed the Ferocious. 

He effected the conquest of Syria, of Armenia, and, in 
in- l.")16, of Egypt, under the Mamelukes. 

Solyraan H (from 1520 to 156G), surnamed tlic Irlog- 
7iijlcent and the Great ; he was the hero of his race. His 
most brilliant actions are the siege and capture oi' Rhodes 
from the knights of Saint John ; the victory ®f Mo/iaez 
over the Hungarians ; the siege of Vienna ; the capture 
of Bagdad; the conquest of Temcn ; the siege of Mali;;, 
&c. Francis I made alliance with Solyman, and the 
world saw for the first time a Turko Frardcish fleer. 

8di7U II (from 15GG to 1574) conquered Tunis, and 
the island of Cyprus, and was beaten at Lepeir.to (157!), 
by Don Juan, natural son of Cliarles Fifth. 



What is said of Bajazet I ?— Of Amurath II ?— Of Mahomei 
n ?-0f Selim I ?— Of Solvnian 1 1 ?— Of 8eiim II ? 



IIISTOillCAL SKETCHES. 235 

Mahomet IV (from 1G19 to 16S7). This sultan, in 
16S3, invaded Hungary, and besieged Vienna. At the 
same time, Sohieskl having marched to the assistance 
of" that city, the Turks were beaten and constrained to 
retreat. Mahomet IV was deposed and strangled. 

Solijman III ( 1687-169 1 ). Under his reigii, the famous 
visir Mtistapha Kluproli gained great victories : he took 
possession of Belgrade. 

Achmct III (from 1703 to 1730), the host of Charles 
XII and of Stanislaus. Resolved to re-establish the king 
of Sweden, he was preparing a formidable army for that 
j^-urpose, when Peter the Great prevented him and ad- 
vanced imprudently as far as Jassy. The Turks envel- 
oped him on the banks of the Pruth, and he found him- 
self constrained to treat with them ; less fortunate in his 
encounter with the prince Eugene, Achmet was obliged 
to sign a shameful peace at Passarowitz. 

From this epoch dates the decay of the Ottoman em- 
pire ; for since then the Turks have successively experi- 
enced numerous defeats on the part of the Persians, tl.e 
French army in Egypt, the Russians, in different encoun- 
ters, and in the last place, the Greeks, who are at present 
masters of the Morea, of Licadia, and a large part of the 
Arcli'qyclago. All these events took place under Mah- 
moud II. He was one of the greatest men of his age. 
The reforms which he made, the destruction of the Janis- 
saries, and his noble and vigorous resistance of the Rus- 
sians, render his name celebrated in the annals of Eu- 
rope. His successor is Abdeel ^Medjid, who was niised 
to the sultanate June 30'^^'- 1839. 

AMERICANS IX GENERAL. 
The belief i!i the existence of a fourth part of the worl v 



What is Faid of Mahomet IV ?~0r Solyman III ?— Of Ach- 
met in ?~Of Mahmoud II ?— Of Abdeel Meajia ? 



236 FIFTH PART. 

Iiad been diffused among the ancients. FlatOy in the VI 
century before J. C. and JElla7i, a cotemporaiy of the 
Roman emperor Adrian, speak of the existence of a great 
country to the west of Africa. Still, the fathers of the 
Church believed it their duty to attack that opinion, wliich 
was gaining credit, as impious : they could not believe in 
the antipodes. There was nothing as yet on this head 
but conjecture ; it was reserved for modern navigators to 
prove the reality of another hemisphere. One of them, 
Christopher Columbus, a Getioese, conceived that another 
world might be discovered by sailing towards the west. 
Genoa having treated him as a visionary, and John II, 
king of Portugal, having declined his services, Columbus 
presented himself at the court of Spain, where queen 
Isabella entrusted to him three vessels for a voyage of 
discovery. Columbus departed on tlie o^'^ of August, 
1492 ; he embaiked at the port of Palos [Andalusia), 
with an equipment of one hundred and twenty men. He 
gained the island of Gomera, where he recruited his little 
fleet. Proceeding on his voyage, three months passed 
away and no land presented itself. The crews murmur- 
ed and talked of throwing Columbus into the sea. The 
second day after this mutinous occurrence, a fresher 
breeze restored hope, and on the 11* of October, at 10 
o'clock in the evening, the spontaneous cry was heard : 
Land ! Land ! The whole company fell at the feet of 
Columbus, and saluted him admiral and vice-roy. 

The land which he had reached was the Island of 
Guahahani, which Columbus called San Salvador. 

He afterwards discovered Conception, la Ferdinanda, 
and Isabella, and landed on the large island of Cuba; in 
twenty-four hours he arrived at the Island of Hayti, which 



What is said of the ancient opinions concerning another con- 
tinent? — What account is given of Columbus and his enter- 
prise? — What land dlJ 
eubsequent discoveries ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 237 

he called Hispaniola, afterwards named Saint Domingo, 
and which now has resumed the name of Hayti. Finally, 
in his three voyages, he discovered the Lucayas, the 
Great and Little Antilles, and landed on terra firma, not 
far from the spot vrhere Carthagena was afterwards built. 

After suffering many injustices, Christopher Columbus, 
on returning from his third voyage, died at Valladolid, in 
1506, at the age of sixty-five years : notwithstanding his 
discoveries, it was still a Florentine trader, named Amcri- 
cus Vcsjm,ccius, who had the honor of giving his name to 
the new hemisphere. 

Many adventurers, encouraged by the discoveries of 
Christopher Columbus, pursued the same career as him- 
self. 

DISCOVERIES IN AMERICA. 

IX Century. — The Danes in Greenland. 

1492. — Christopher Columlms discovered the Lucayan 
Inlands, Cuba, and Hispaniola. 

1496. — Sebastian Cabot, a Venitian, in the service of 
England, discovered Newfoundland and Virginia. 

1518. — Grijalva, a Spaniard, saw the coasts of Mexico. 

1518. — The Baron tic Levi, a Frenchman, visited the 
eastern coasts of America. 

1519. — Fernando Cortcz subdued Mexico. 

1554. — Cartier, a Frenchman, arrived at the mouth 
of the River St. Lawrence. 

1607. — Hvdson discovered the coast east of Greenland. 

1607-1733.— The United States of America, founded 
by the English, in colonies, under James I. 

What was the sequel of his history ?— Who gave name to 
the new hemisphere ?— When and by whom was Greenland 
discovered ?— Cuba and Hispaniola ?— Newfoundland and Vir- 
ginia ?— The coasts of Mexico ?— The eastern coasts of Ameri- 
ca ?— Interior of Mexico ?— Mouth of the St Lawrence? — 
Coasts east of Greenland ?— Territory of the British American 
colonies 1 



238 FIFTH PAIIT. 

SOUTH vVMEillCA. 

1500. — Alrcrcz Cahral, a Portuguese, discoverL'J 
Brazil. 

1520. — Magellan discovered Terra del Fuego and Pa- 
tagonia. 

1524. — Discovery and conquest of Peru by Phano, a 
Spaniard. 

MEXICANS. 

In 15 ID, tlie Spaniard.s, commanded by Fcrfuvido 
Cork'z, a simple lieutenant of Velasquez, Governor of 
Cuba, made the conquest of Mexico. Men mounted on 
horses, fire-arms, and ships, like floating fortresses, diflnscd 
terror among the Mexicans, who still were considerably ad- 
vanced in civilization and the mechanic arts. 

Tlie empire of Mexico was then governed by JSTontczv- 
rna, a powerful king, who had a great number of vassals. 

Cortez made that prince prisoner, who was slain in an 
insurrection by his own subjects. The Mexicans were 
subdued after some years of warfare, and their country 
remained in the power of the Spaniards. We cannot 
figure to ourselves the fearful cruelties which defiled tho 
conquest of Mexico; a great number of the inhabitants 
were marked upon the forehead with a hot iron, and af- 
terwards sent to labor in the mines, Cortez caused tho 
emperor, Gvatimozin, nephew of Montezuma, to bo 
stretched upon burning coals. But these numerous crimes 
were of no use to Cortez himself; Charles Fifth caused 
all his possessions to be seized upon, and commanded 



When and by whom was Brazil discovered ? — Terra del 
Fuego and Patagonia? — Peru? — What were the exploiis of 
Fernando Cortez in Mexico? — How. did lie deal wiih Monte- 
zuma ? — What is said of the cruelties practised by the Span- 
iards ? — How did Cortez treat Guatimozin? — How did Charles 
Fifih deal with Cortez? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 239 

him to rctuni to Spain, where he died in 1545. Tho 
Spaniards drew immense wealth from Mexico, but tho 
extreme severity of their laws exasperated the minds of 
the colonists, and the events which agitated Spain in J SOS, 
in consequence of the invasion of that country by tho 
armies of Napoleon, favored the movements in Mexico 
against the despotic dominion of the government. A 
monk, named Hidalgo, raised the standard of independ- 
ence : he was shot in ISil. MorlJIos a new leader of 
tho insurrection, caused a provincial constitution to bo 
proclaimed, in 1S12. Being made prisoner, ho was con- 
demned to death as a heretic and rebel. A third chief, 
the youtliful Xavter Mina, met with the same fate. 

New revolts took place against new vexations. I(i/r- 
bidc was declared generalissimo of Ptiexico by land and 
sea. A congress was convoked, when that ambitious 
chief caused himself to be proclaimed Emperor. Still 
many deputies had the courage to protest; the oi->2-)Osition 
to the new emperor became general. Santa Anna, gov- 
ernor of Vera Cruz, became the interpreter of the whole 
nation, and proclaimed the rep^ihlic (1S12). Ifurhidc ab- 
dicated : the Mexicans had the generosity to exile him, 
conferring upon him at the same time a considerable 
pension, 

Mexico then constituted herself into federative re- 
publics. 

Meanwhile Iturhide still dreamt of the crown of Mexi- 
co. He had been declared a traitor and proscribed ; he 
departed nevertheless from England, on the 11'^ of May 
1324, and .on the S'^ of July he appeared at the bar of 



240 FIFTH PART. 

Soto la Mama, with his family, and disembarked in dis- 
guise ; ho was taken and shot on the 19* of July. 
Mexico has since had new shocks; her people apparent- 
ly incapable of self government, have been the prey of 
ephemeral demagogues and military despots, and their tur- 
bulent and distracted state has ended in a war, now in 
progress, with this country, (the United States,) tlie re- 
sults of which, though as yet not fully apparent, can scarce- 
ly fail to be ultimately of immense benefit to Mexico, 
let the immediate issue of the conflict be what it may. 

FERUVIANS. 

In 1524< three adventurers, Francis Pizarro, the natu- 
ral son of a gentleman of Estramadura, and, in his youth, 
a shepherd at Truxillo; Diego d'Ahnagro, found at the 
door of a church, and Fernando de Lucca ^ a shepherd and 
schoolmaster at Panama, all three of them more than fifty 
years of age, formed the project of penetrating into the 
continent of South America. 

Francis Pizarro set sail from Panama in November, 
and discovered Peru. Huana Capa, a warlike prince, 
then occupied the Peruvian throne. Pizarro returned to 
Panama, and came back the year following to pursue his 
conquest. The country was at that time disturbed by the 
rivalry of the two sons of Huana, AtJiualipa and Huascar, 
who disputed the throne. The former having got posses- 
sion of Quito, the capital of the empire, both of them 
sought to gain Pizarro, who had already exterminated 
forty thousand Peruvians. In an interview which he had 
with Athualipa, the inca was made prisoner. Trembling 

What is the present condition of the Mexicans? — What ac- 
count is given of Pizarro and his associates? — By whom was 
Peru discovered ? — What native prince then occupied the 
throne? — By what was the country at that time disturbed?^ 
What attempt was made by the sons of Huana in regard to 
Pizarro? — Whom did he make prisoner ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 241 

with fear, he promised for ransom as many ingots of gold 
as the hall where he found himself would contain up to 
the height which a man could reach with his hand. These 
sacrifices were useless. He was strangled on one of the 
public squares. The principal provinces of the empire 
were from that time subject to the Spaniards. 

Ahnagro, jealous of Pizarro, possessed himself of 
Cuzco; but the companion of his fortune marched against 
him, defeated him, caused his officers to be slaughter- 
ed, and himself to be strangled in prison. He was after- 
'.vard beheaded at Lhna, being seventy-seven years of 
age. Ferdinando de Lucca, who became bishop of Peru, 
died in 1533; but the partisans o? Alniagro had sworn to 
avenge themselves. Pizarro succumbed beneath their 
strokes, and liis death led to that of the son of Almaoro. 
who was appointed governor oi Lima. This young man 
perished in the same city, on the same square, of the same 
punishment, by the hand of the same executioner, and 
was placed in the same tomb as his father. The Spanish 
despotism was organized in Peru as in Mexico. The 
colonists waited only for an opportunity to throw it off. 
The events of 1808 produced no revolution; but General 
Saint Martin shook the whole population. The Indian 
tribes, the Spanish, all armed themselves, and the inde- 
pendence of Peru was recognized and declared in 1821. 
Saint Martin quitted the Peruvians after having enfran- 
chised them. His departure was fatal to the state which 
he had founded. It was about to relapse into the power 
of Spain, when Bolivar and his lieutenant, General Sucre 

What promise was made by Athualipa? — Did the perform- 
ance of his pmmise avail him aught? — To whom was the 
greater part of the empire from that time subject? — What is 
said of Almagro? — Of Fernand de Lucca? — Of ihe partisans 
of Almagro? — Of the deaths of Pizarro and Altnagros son ? — 
What is said of (he Spanish despotism in Peru ? — What eflect 
wa^ produced by Gen. St. Martin ?— What was the conse- 
quence of his leaviug Peru ? 



2 42 FIFTH PAUT. 

reanimated the Peruvians anJ icitorcd to them their 
liberty. Ti.e title.:* o^ Father of tJtc People and Savior of 
Peru wore decreed to Bolivar. 

BKAzn.IA.NS. 

The discovery of Brazil beloug.s to the Portuguese. 
Alvarez Cahral comj^ander of a fleet of that nation, wisii- 
iiig- to reach the Indies, was driven hy contrary winds 
npoii the coasts of Brazil, which he discovered ; he took 
possession of it in the name of the king of PorlngHl. 
Tlii.s colony acquired in the sequel a high importance fri>iii 
tlie rich mines of gold and diamonds which were disco- 
vered there. The history of Brazil offers nothing of in- 
tcrcot until 1580, when that country passed to Spain; 
l)ut in IG'IO a revolution placed upon the throne of Por- 
tugal the family of Braganza, and caused th.e dominion of 
the Spaniards :n Brazil lo cease. The Holhiuders also 
})0fe£ei:sed themselves, in 1024-, of a part of that country ; 
but after many vicissitudes the Portuguese recovered the 
full posocsjsion of it in 1G61, by paying to Holland eight 
tons of gold. In 1S08, when the English and the French 
took possession of Portugal, John Y\^ then regent of the 
kingdom, ])assed over to Brazil, and established there the 
.seat of government ; but being recalled by the Cortes of 
Lisbon, he set sail from Bra??il, witii alt his court, on the. 
26''' of x\pril,. 1821. Don Pedro, hereditary prince, re- 
mained in xYmcrica, with the title of vicc-ro}/ ; but the 
Brazilians, unwiliirjg any longer to be dependent on Lis- 
bon, proclaimed him Emperor of Brazil under the name 
oi' Pedro I, on the 12'^' of October, 1822. A military re- 
volution soon hurled him from the throne, upo!i which 
was seated his son, Pedro /^/(ISll). 

What account is given of Bolivar? — By whom was Brazil 
discovered? — What gave this colony a hi^h importance? — 
When did Brn/.il become a Spanish pusse.-sion? — Wlsaf change 
t=jok place in ItJlO ? I3>l?i6i;i? Id03? LS21 ? 1322? 1341? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 243 

HAYTIENS 

( Sa in t Do7ningo . ) 

The island of llispaniola (little Spain), Saint Domingo 
or Ilayti, was discovered by Christopher Columbus, in 
1492. It was then inhabited by the Carrihces who, at 
an epoch difficult to determine, had made a conquest of 
it from the Ygneris, and were confounded with them. 

The Spnniards, after having exterminated them, re- 
mained peaceable possessors of the island. They replaced 
the destroyed population by blacks imported from the 
coasts of Africa. The example of such importations was 
continually followed, and this new race was naturalized 
upon the soil, of which they have become proprietors. 
In 1620 certain French and English adventurers united- 
ly took possession of the island. Driven out in their turn 
by the Spaniards, they retired to the island of Tortvga^ 
situated on the north-east coast, where they rendered 
themselves formidable by their piracies. Towards the 
middle of the XVII century these same adventurers, 
known under the name of buccaneers or freebooters, hav- 
ing anew seized upon more than two-fifths of the island 
of Hayti, France took them under her protection. 

In 1665, d'Ogcron, governor of the island, sent thither 
by the court of France, employed the ascendant of his 
talents and virtues over the white inhabitants. He com- 
menced their civilization and turned their activity to the 
profit of the cultivation of Saint Domingo. The part 
which they occupied was ceded to France by the treaty 
of Ryswick, in 1697. 



By whom and when was Hispaniola discovered ? — By whom 
was'it then inhabited ? — What is said of the Carribees and the 
Ygn6ris? — What is said of the Spaniards ? — How did they re- 
place the native population ? — What resulted from the impor- 
tatiou of the blacks into Hayti ? — Who took possession of the 
island in 1620? — What became of them after their expulsion ? 
— What is said of d'Offeron ? 



244 FIFTH FART. 

The colony languished until 1722, under the govern- 
ment of companies; but from that time its prosperity 
went on continually increasing, until the revolution of 
1789. 

The troubles of France were the first signal of those 
of the colony. There was loud talk in the island of 
liberty, of the abolition of privileges. Exaggerated pre- 
tensions raised the passions of the islanders, excited dis- 
orders, and prepared the way fur the loss of the colony 
in 17S9. 

The mulattoes assembled after the constitution of Saint 
Mark, and a first insurrection was excited by Age, who 
had arrived from France. 

The hlachs and the mulattoes, who formed the great 
majority of the population, claimed at that epoch tho 
same rights as the whites, and the latter obstinately re- 
fusing them, a general insurrection broke out in the 
month of August, 1791, and the whole French part of the 
island presented nothing but one vast field of burning, 
slaughter and desolation. Agents proceeding from the 
Spanish party directed the first effcjrts of the slaves, who 
had, at the outset, remained strangers to the debates of 
their masters. 

On the 10'^' of April, 1793, Fm-t an Prince was be- 
sieged. Two thousand bullets were fired at the city ; a 
large number of the inhabitants were transported. On 
the 20*'^ of June Golbaud, the governor, placed himself 
at the head of the insurrection of the sailors of the squad- 
ron, in the road-stead of the Cape. 

What was the slate of the colony nntil 1722? — From 1722 
to 1739? — What produced distiirbnnce in the colony ? — la 
nluit year was it lost to France ? — Who excited an insurrec- 
tion amoni: the mulattoes ? — What led to the outbreak in 
1791? — What were its consequences? — Who directed the 
eflTorts of the insurgent negroes ? — What happened Xo Port au 
Prince ? — What is said of Golbaud ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 245 

HdiitliGiiax, a. civil commissary, armed llie blacks for 
llie defence of the sans-culottes patriots. On the 24^^ of 
June the settlement at the Cape was burnt. On the 2S^^ 
the French fleet took its departure for the United States, 
whither it transported the unhappy colonists of the Cape. 
On the 9^^ of August the re-entrance of the civil commis- 
Earies at the Cape took place, amid the cries of Xii-e the 
Republic, All the whites were obliged to fly. On the 
29^^ of August, SantJionax proclaimed the r'tgJds of via7iy 
and declared that slavery was abolished for ever in Saint 
Domingo. On the 22"*^ of September the English took 
Jeremy and the mole of St. Nicholas : they maintained 
themselves in the colony until 1793. 

Toussaint Louverture gradually possessed himself of 
the authority ; he forced the commissaries to embark for 
France ; he re-established order and tranquility, and 
brought back the blacks to their labor. On the 1'^* of 
July, ISOl, he approved the new constitution of Saint 
Domingo ; he was appointed governor for life and invest- 
ed with the right of choosing his successor. 

On the 14^^ of December, ISOl, Bonaparte sent out 
fiom France a fleet of 23 ships of the line and other ves- 
sels, loaded with 22,000 men, under the command of 
General Leclerc, to take possession of the island. 

On the 7* of May, 1802, the whole colony submitted 
to him. ChristopJie treated first ; Toussaint and Dessa- 
linc imitated him : they delivered up their arms and mu- 
nitions of war. On the 10* of June Toussaint was ar 
rested and transported to France; meanwhile sickness 
made great ravages in the French army : insurrection 
began anew. 



What is said of Sanlhonax and his proceedings at the Cape ? 
— ^What places were captured by the English ? — What is said 
of Toussaint Louverture ? — What armament was sent to Hayti 
by Bonaparte ^— What did it accomplish ? 



246 FIFTH PART, 

From the lime that Toussaait Louvcrture, who \vas 
found at the head of the government of Saint Domingo, 
had been sent into Fiance, DessaUnc was of the number 
of those who aspired to take his place. Aided by Chris- 
topfie and certain other chiefs, he sustained himself in the 
northern part of the island against the attacks of General 
Rocluimheau. General Ferrand, who commanded in the 
Spanish part, maintained order and preserved i:^aint 
Domingo to France until 1809. 

After the expulsion of the French, in November, 1803, 
DessaVme got possession of the supreme authority and 
took the title of James /, emperor of Hayti. He rendered 
himself odious by his cruelties. A conspiracy was form- 
ed against him, and he was killed while attending a re- 
view, on the 17^^ of October, 1806. Christophe was im- 
mediately raised to the rank of president and generalissi- 
mo, and Pethion was appointed his lieutenant in the east- 
ern part of the island. 

An assembly was convoked at the Cape to draw up a 
constitution. This measure was the source of new divi- 
sions. Pethion put himself at the head of the party who 
wished a representative system. Christophe, a partizan 
of absolute power, declared Pethion in a state of revolt 
and marched against him at the head of all his forces. 
Bloody combats took place at different times between the 
two competitors, but without any decisive result. From 
that epoch Pethion maintained himself independently at 
Port an Prince, under the title of president of the repub- 
lic of Hayti. In 1811 Christophe caused himself to be 
consecrated king of Hayti under the name of Henry 7, 
Instituted a nobility and modelled the usages of his court 
upon those of Europe ; but having abandoned himself to 



What is said of Dessaline?— Of General Ferrand ?— What 
took place in 1803 ?— What was the fate of Dessaline ?--What 
ie said of Christophe and Pethion ? • 



» HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 217 

many deeds of cruelty, lie was the victim of a conspiracy 
which took place at the Cape on the 9^^ of October, 1820. 
In order that he n^ight not fall into the hands of the coii- 
Epirators, he committed suicide by burning his brain. 
Pitfuoti consolidated in the east the order of thiiags v/liich 
he iiad established there. He died on the ^9^*^ of Mavth, 
18iS, leaving for his successor Greneral Boycr. This 
licw president availed himself of the revolution vvhich 
look place at the Cape, an-d i^eutiited under his govern- 
ment the different provinces of the island. The inhabi- 
tants of the Spanish part solicited, on tlie 2Sy^ of D^x'.cm- 
ber, 1821, a siniilar favor. The vvIk^Ic i-land of Saint 
Domingo is at present goveri>ed protessedly by the same 
laws. Port au Prince is now the seat of government of 
llayti. On tiie 17^^ of April, 1825, appeared an ordi- 
nance of the king of France, by which the full and entiixs 
independence of the actual government of the French 
part of the island of Saint Domingo or Hayti was ac- 
knowledged. Still Hayti is very far from the enjoyment 
of a settled government. The crude and heterogeneous 
elements which enter, there, into the composition of the 
body politic, are still in a state of fermentation, and it is 
greatly to be doubted whether the important island of 
Saint Domingo can ever enjoy peace or prosperity under 
its present regimen. 

JIOLLANDERS AND BELGIANS. 

The Koiuans comprehended under the name of Btli^l- 
€U7}i almost all the countries situated north of Gaul ; they 
had frequent conflicts to sustain there ogainst strong and 
warlike nations, who could not accommodate thomselvea 
to the yoke of obedience. 

What is said of General Boyo,r?— What is said of the pre- 
sent organization of Hayti?— What countries were included 
by the Romans under the-general name ofBelgirum ?— What 
conflicts between the Roman and the Eelga? ? 



24S f-lFTH PART. • 

" The Batavians made themselves a name among those 
nations. They followed the destiny of the Roman em- 
pire, and passed successively under different masters. 

Charlemagne subdued them ; they remained under the 
dominion of his family until it was extinguished. 

Frequent revolutions and interior troubles agitated 
these provinces, which at first formed only one State un- 
der a single chief, but were soon divided into many gov- 
ernments under different names. 

There were then a duke of Frisia, a duke of Brabant, 
a count of Flanders, and a count of Holland : they were 
frequently at war with tlieir neighbors. Philip the Fair 
and Charles the Fair gained over them signal victories. 

Flanders, which was become very jDopulous and flou- 
rishing, had been possessed by the first house of Burgun- 
dy, the issue of king Robert. At the commencement of 
the XV century it passed to the second, the issue of 
Philip, sou of king John. It was happy under a pacific 
government; its commerce increased, and all the neigh- 
boring nations paid tribute to its industry. 

The house of Austria acquired there some fine provin- 
ces by a marriage. Mary of Burgundy, only heir of Charles 
the Rash, the last duke of that family, brought them in dow- 
ry to the emperor Maximiliari. Philip, their son, espoused 
Jane the Simple, who brought him Arragon and Castile ; 
he left all his dominions to Charles Fifth. Under this 
new master, many provinces which at the present day 
compose Holland, began to manifest their claims to inde- 
pendence; but they were speedily compelled to return 



What is said of the Batavians? — What did Charlemagne do 
to them? — What efTect was produced by their inward agita- 
tions ? — Among what potentates was the country dividisd ? — 
Who gained many victories over them? — By whom was Flan- 
ders successively possessed ? — Was it flourishina:? — How did 
the house of Austria acquire dominion there ? — What is said 
of the Belgian provinces under Charles Fifth ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 249 

within the bounds of subordination. What tiie adroit 
policy of Charles Fifth had prevented for a time, came 
about in consequence of the imperious haughtiness of 
Philip II, and, above all, through the cruel and sangui- 
nary character of the duke of Alba, whom he had ap- 
pointed governor-general of the Low Countries. 

The Hollanders held the inquisition in horror. The 
duke of Alba, authorized by Philfj) II, established it in 
all the districts of his government. Scaffolds were pre- 
pared, funeral piles kindled, and blood flowed on all 
sides ; the prisons were glutted with prisoners. A tribu- 
nal of blood prosecuted equally citizens of all ranks and 
of all ages. Life was taken from them and their goods 
were confiscated. Whole families perished by the sword, 
by water and by fire. 

Excessive imposts overwhelmed the people, who had 
no resources for escaping from their misery but in de- 
spair. They were driven to extremity and sought to 
avenge themselves by revolting. The revolt, in a gio- 
ment, raised all the provinces of the Low Countries. 

William of Nassau, prince of Orange, who had retired 
into Germany and there raised some troops, joined the 
rarilcontents. The duke of Alba was recalled; but it was 
too late. The war continued with various success ; final- 
ly the deputies of the States of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
Frisla, Groningen, Over-Yssel, and Gueldres, assembled 
at Utrecht, and declared Philip II deposed from his 
sovereignty of the Lov/ Countries (1581). 

The stadtholdership was established ; but the authority 
of the chief or stadtholder was balanced by that of the 
States-General. 



Y/hat is said of Philip II and the duke of Alba?— What 
were the effects of the Inquisition in Holland ?— To what were 
the people driven by excessive imposts ? — What prince joined 
the malcontents?— By whom was Philip II deposed ?— What 
is said of the stadtholderate ? 

11* 



250 FIFTH PART. 

Holland, having become .m independent power, con- 
stituted herself a republic after the treaty of Westphalia 
or Munstcr, in 1648. She maintained afterward success- 
ful wars against England and Sweden. 

In 1672, on the 4^'' of July, Holland resumed the gov- 
ernment of the stadtholdcrshij). The bravery and ability 
of admiral Ruyter re-established the prospenty of tlie 
State, which had been so seriously compromised, Wil- 
liam III, prince of Orange, profited by this return of fur- 
tune to cause the stadtholdership to be declared heredita- 
ry in his family. He was the son of William II of Nas- 
sau and of Henrietta Maria Stuart, daughter of Charles I. 
He had the glory of making head against Louis XIV ; 
but he was beaten by Luxemburg!), and constrained, 
by the exhaustion of his forces, to sign the peace of Nime- 
gucn. He took the crown from James II, his father-in- 
law, and caused himself to be acknowledored king^ of 
England and Scotland. He died in 1702. 

At his death the stadtholdcrshij) was abolished, not to 
be re established before 1747. 

The thirty years' of peace which Holland had enjoyed 
€ince the conclusion of the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, 
eufficed for that commercial republic in order to recover 
lior power. The seven years' war caused her to experi- 
ence new reverses, and it was in consequence of these 
reverses that the Orangeists, or the partizans of the house 
of Orange, succeeded in re-establishing it in its heredita- 



Tn what year was Holland constituted a republic ? — With 
whom did she maintain successful wars ? — When did she rr^- 
.store the stadtholdership — How was her prosperity resfored ? 
— In what family did the stadtholdership become hereditary ? 
-—Against whom was William III successful ? — By whom 
was lie beaten ? — What peace did he sign ? — From whom did 
he take the crown ? — What was abolished at his deatii ? — 
What effect had the long continuance of peace on Holland? — 
What was occasioned by the seven years' war ? 



TIISTORICA]^ ^XETCHES. 251 

ry tllguitics. Factions rent the country and prrporeJ tlu3 
way for the revolution vvliich was effected there, in 179.5, 
by the French army, under the conduct bf General Ptcho 
gra. The Batavian republic was soon treated as a con- 
quered province by the commissioners of the Direc- 
tory. In 1806 Napoleon erected the seven provinres of 
Holland into a kingdom, in favor of his brother Louis, 
and four years afterward this same kingdom, transform- 
ed into departments, was incorporated with the Freiiclj 
empire. 

After having shared for twenty years the destiny of 
I^^ancc ; Holland, constituted as the kingdom of the Low 
Countries, at the congress of 1815, recognized for )ier 
lawful sovereign William I. The revolution of Belgium, 
in 1830, left that prince only Holland, over which he 
reigned until his death. At present (1847) the throne 
of Holland is occupied by William H, whose accession 
took place October 7'-^- 1810. 

BELGIANS. 

Belgium, formerly the Austrian Low Counrries, and 
since united to France, in whose successes and reverses 
it has for twenty years participated, forms, at the present 
day, the finest part of the Low Countries. The Belgians 
arc entirely French ; they have the French manners, lan- 
guage and habits ; they have been at all times the enemies 
of the Hollanders ; and the revohUiou which broke out in 

1830, in the Ix)w Countries, proves the little sympathy 
which existed between the two people. Leopold I, of 
Saxe-Coburg, was proclaimed king of the Belgians in 

1831, June 4^^^- 

What produced the revolution there in 1795 ?— What befel 
[lolland in 180G ?— Five years afterward ?— How was she dis- 
posed ofin the con<ires9 of 1815 ? — What effect was produceri 
by the revolution of Belgium In 1630 ?— V7hat account is glvefc 
of the Belgians ? 



252 FIFTH PART. 



PRUSSIANS. 



Prussia derives its name from a colony of Scythians 
called Borussi, or Prussians, who settled there. The 
epoch of their establishment in that country is not known, 
any more than the history of that primitive people. We 
only know that they made frequent incursions into the 
teiTitories of their neighbors, and that the kings of Poland 
and Denmark tried many times to subdue them, but in 
vain. 

UNDER THE TEUTONIC KNIGHTS. 

Conrad, duke of Moravia and a Polish prince, not be- 
ing able to defend himself against their ravages, had re- 
course to the Teutonic or German knights, whose order 
had taken its birth in Palestine, towards the middle of the 
XII century, after the conquest of Jerusalem by the army 
of the crusaders. 

"The duke of Moravia, then tutor of young Boleslas, 
king of Poland, ceded, in the name of the nation, the ter- 
ritory of Culm to these chevaliers, who engaged to con- 
quer Prussia. They entered that country in fact and ren- 
dered themselves entirely masters of it, after a cruel war 
of fifty- three years. 

.But, in the sequel, these chevaliers were themselves 
attacked by the neighboring princes, who tried to take 
from them a part of their possessions. 

Many Prussian cities revolted from the knights and 
placed themselves under the protection of the Poles. 



From what does Prussia derive its name ? — What is known 
of its early history? — How did the order of Teutonic Knights 
originate ?— Who ceded to them the territory of Culm?— On 
what consideration and liow did they perform it ? — What befel 
them in the secjuel ?— What portion of their dominion revolted 
from the knights? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 253 

The bloody war thus occasioned was terminated by a 
treaty, which secured western or royal Prussia to the 
king of Poland, and eastern Prussia to the Teutonic 
Knights, on condition that they were to hold it as a fief 
of the crown of Poland : to which their grand-master 
should render homage. 

Sigismund I, king of Poland, granted it to the grand- 
master, Albert, of the house of Brandenburg, under the 
title of the secular duchy. 

DUCAL HOUSE. 

Eastern Prussia, which was then called Ducal, was 
even declared hereditary in the family of Albert, on con- 
dition that the dukes should do homage for it to Poland, 

William I, son of Albert, profited by the troubles 
which- agitated that kingdom to obtain a cessation of the 
homage due to Poland, and was acknowledged an inde- 
pendent duke and sovereign. 

KOITAL HOUSE OF 
BRANDENBURG-HOHEN-ZOLLERN. 

Frederic, son of William I, carried his views further, 
and, of his own authority, caused himself to be crowned 
king of Prussia in 1701. The pov/ers of Europe recog- 
nized him under this title at the peace of Utrecht (1713). 
His son, Frederic William I, succeeded him in 1713. 

He encouraged industry and commerce ; but he gave 
no attention to the sciences and letters, and harshly treat- 
ed his son Frederic, who passionately devoted himself to 
them. 



How was the war thus occasioned finally settled ? — What is 
recorded of Sijjismimd I ? — In what family was ducal Prussia 
declared hereditary? — On what condition? — What is said of 
William I ?— Of Frederic ?— Of Frederic William I ? 



IcCA FIFTH PART. 

He acquired', in a war against Sweden, ibe duchy of 
Stettin, which he detached from Swedish Pomerania. 

This prince was, during his whole life, a person of 
great eccentricity ; he was very cruel, not only towards 
Grangers, but still more towards his own family. HirJ son 
Frederic, wisliing to withdraw himself from his unjust 
severity, formed the project of flying in company with 
Kat, a young officer ; this escape was discovered, Frede- 
ric was put in prison at Gastrin, on the Oder, and Kat 
beheaded under the very eyes of his young protector. 

Frederic II was twenty-eight years old when he mount- 
ed the throne in 1741 : he was not less an excellent civil 
administrator than a great warrior. 

The death of the emperor Charles VI had set Europe 
«n fire. From all sides eager hands were laid upon the 
legacies left to Maria Theresa by her father; Frederic 
maintained his pretensions to a part of them with as much 
success as determination. 

The Prussian army was organized, disciplined and 
formed to great and masterly evolutions from the first 
year of his reign. 

His victories placed upper Silesia, Moravia and a part 
of Bohemia so promptly in his power, that England has- 
tened to interpose a mediation, of which the peace, signed 
at Berlin the 28^^ of July, 17-12, became the result. 

In 1744 Prussia was enlarged anew by taking posses- 
sion of East Frisia, after the death of its last prince. 

Austria, humbled, yet resentful, left Germany at lest 
but for a few years. By her instigations a new league, 
composed of many powerful sovereigns of Europe, wa;3 
formed against Frederic II. 

What character is given of Frederic II ? — How did he maiu- 
tain his claims to a part of the inheritance of Maria Theresa ? 
— What was the slate of the Prussian army dtiring his rei^^n ? 
— What were the results of his victories ? — How was Prussia 
enlarged in 1744 ? — What league was formed against Frederic 
by Austria! ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 255 

Then commenced the seven gears' war (from 17o6 to 
17G3), during which Frederic caused military science to 
make the greatest progress. 

The following year, 1757, the war was continued with 
great activity. Frederic had at that time combined 
against him, not only Austria, but also Russia, Sweden, 
Saxony, and a large part of the empire, the diet having 
<leclared against him the toar of execution, as the disturb- 
er of the public peace by an invasion he had made into 
Saxony. 

Berlin came near being ruined by the enemy ; but it 
was redeemed at the price of 1,700,000 crowns. 

In 1763, Frederic made peace, at Wesel, with France, 
and a litllo while afterward, with Austria and Saxony, at 
Hubertsburg, a country-seat of the elector of Saxony. 

In 1772, he established a company of maratime c<)m- 
merce. 

The last important event of the reign of Frederic tlie 
Great was the conclusion of the Germanic Confederacy, 
the object of which was the maintenance of the Germanic 
independence against the house of Austria. 

This hero died on the 17^" of August, 17SG, aged se- 
venty-five years ; of which he had reigned forty-seven. 

Frederic II merited the title of Great : he cultivated 
letters with success. His correspondence with Voltaire 
is celebrated ; he left many works, and drew up a code 
of laws which bears his name. He was very simple in 
his private life, and distributed his moments with a regu- 
larity altogether military. 

Frederic William, nephew of Frederic II, succeeded 



What is said of Frederic during the seven years' war ?-— 
What powers were combined against him in 1757? — What is 
said of Berlin at this lime ?— With whom did Frederic make 
peace in 1763?— What did he do in 1772?— What was the last 
important event of his reign ?~When did he die ?— -What more 
is eaid of him ? 



256 FIFTH PART. 

him. He was a good prince, but weak, too much devot- 
ed to his pleasures, and not managing with prudence the 
treasures which his predecessors had left him, and with- 
out which Prussia could not maintain herself at tho point 
where Frederic had left her. Under him, the discipline 
of the troops was relaxed, and the administration fell to 
decay. 

Frederic sent into the United Provinces twenty thou- 
sand men who, in the space of one month, got possession 
of that country and re-established there the hereditary 
stadtholderate (1787). 

He took against Austria and Prussia the side of the 
Porte, with which he had signed, on the 31^* of January, 
a defensive alliance. 

The peace of Bale, which he signed with France on 
the 5'^*^ of April, 1795, was more conformed to good poli- 
cy. The French evacuated the Prussian dominions which 
they occupied upon the right bank of the Rhine; but the 
king of Prussia renounced those which he possessed upon 
the left bank, for an equivalent which was promised him. 

In 1791, Frederic William acquired the principalities 
g£ Anspachc and Barcuth, by the voluntary cession of the 
lust margrave. Christian Frederic. He died in 1797, on 
the 16'^ of November, 

Frederic William III succeeded his father. He an- 
nounced from the first year of his reign the design of 
maintaining the peace signed at Bdle. He applied him- 
self to the task of re-establishing the finances, by introduc- 
ing into the various parts of the administration a sago 



What account is given of Frederic William ? — What did his 
troops accomplish in the United Provinces? — With whom did 
he take part against Austria and Prussia? — What is said of 
the peace of Bftle? — What acquisitions did he make in 170! ? 
— What announcement did Frederic William II [ make on his 
accession to the throne ? — To what task did he apply himsfll ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES, 257 

economy, in consequence of which he succeeded in a few 
years in paying the debts left by his father, and even a 
part of those of Poland, with which he had been charged 
by the last partition of that country. 

Having declared war against France, he found himself 
constrained, in consequence of the battle of Jena, to sign 
at Tilsit a treaty by which he ceded a part of his domin- 
ions. But in 1813, profiting by the disasters of the cam- 
paign o^ Moscow, he encouraged the patriotic association 
known under the name of the Tugend Bund, (confederacy 
of virtue,) formed at Konigsberg in 1808, as well as the 
formation of voluntary corps, and promised his people 
'political institutions in unison with the intelligence of the 
age : After eight years of expectation, there appeared, 
on the l8t of July, 1823, a law enacted by William HI 
concerning the organization of provincial states for the 
raa.rch o^ Brandctiburg and Lower Lusatia. The present 
king of Prussia is Frederic William IV, who came to the 
throne June 7^^' 1840. 

SARDINIANS. 

Fable refers the first colonization of Sardinia to Sardus, 
the son of Hercules: this is a sign of its antiquity. The 
Phenicians, the Trojans, and the Greeks, successively 
established colonies in this island. It afterward fell into 
the power of th^ Carthaginians, who maintained their 
dominion over it during three centuries, only by an odious 
tyranny and an almost continual v/ar against the islanders, 
but were finally driven out from that important posses- 
sion by the Romans, at the time of the first jpunic war. 



How did he succeed? — To what was he driven by the battle 
of Jena ? — What did he effect in 1813 ? — What did he promise 
his people? — How did he keep that promise? — Who is the 
present king of Prussia ?— Through what political changes has 
Sardinia passed \ 



%S% FIFTH FAIIT. 

The fertility of Sardinia was of so much value to the 
Roman people, that many of their writers have named it 
ihe nurse of Ro/uc, the favorite of Ccrtv?, iltc mothtr of 
fiocks. The islanders remained nevortheloss under a 
severe slavery. They only changed masters after the de- 
cay of the em])ire. The Vandals, the Goths, and tlie 
Moors, successively got possession of Sardinia ; it was 
taken from the latter by the Genoese, with whom the 
Pisans ere long obstinately disputed it. The struggle be- 
tween the two rival republics, of which this island was 
the object, was suddenly terminated by pope Boniface 
VllI, who, in pursuance of a right which he had arroga- 
ted to himself, invested with it the king of Arragon, Don 
Pedro IV. 

After having possessed himself of Sardinia (1554), that 
prince put in force there the institutions by v/hicli he al- 
ready governed his own kingdom, that is to say, those 
forms of representative government Vv'hich certain mon- 
archs of Europe still repel as a dangerous innovation. 

Thus, from the XIV century, there fl<)urished in this 
petty Slate, hardly reckoned among modern nations, a 
constitution associating the sovereign power with the im- 
prescriptible right of the people. Unfortunately, another 
principle of vitality was v/anting to the government of 
Sardinia, even while the people, as well as the clergy 
and nobility, was represented in the cortes or asseml>]ies 
«»f the States: it was parcelled out, in (»nsequence of the 
(System of feudal inheritance, and formed four distinct 
eovereignties, or jurisdictions. This division, which 
necessarily induced frequent conflicts, hindered the de- 



What account is given of the fertility of Sardinia? — Wli;U 
was the civil state of the island under the Romans? — V/hat 
nations successively gained dominion there? — By what means 
did Don Pedro iV obtain possession of it ? — V/hat course did 
he then pursue ?— What principle of vitality was v»'antinf; to 
ijic government of Sardinia ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 250 

Vfjlopcment of all national force. Besides, after the fu- 
sion of the tllfferent kingdoms of Spain, Sardinia was 
*^nly an appendage of that crown. It was governed hy 
Spanish viceroys until 1706, and was taken from Spain at 
that epoch by the English, who, allied to the archduke 
C/iarles in the war of the Spanish succession^ ranked it 
under the authority of that prince. Eleven years after- 
ward it was re-conquered for Philip V by a fleet which 
Albcroni equipped for that purpose; and finally, in 1720 
it was consigned to the king of Sicily and Savoy, Victor- 
Amoedeus U, by tlie prince of Ottaiano, who had re- 
ceived it from the Spaniards in the name of the emperor 
Charles VI. 

Sardinia was then erected into a kingdom. After- 
wards, under the title of the^ Sardinian States, or ki/^g- 
dom of Sardinia, was comprised the union under the same 
sovereignty of the island of Sardinia, Savoy, Piedmont, 
Monfferrai, the principality of Oncglia, the marquisate of 
Salaccs and the ?iG^ of La ngJics. The reign of Victor Amoe- 
dcus III (1793-1796) had been signalized by his impo- 
tent struggle against the French republic, of which he 
soon made himself an ally, and by the perishing condifton 
in which, at his death, he left the kingdom. 

Tiie hands of Charles Inimanuel were not sufficiently 
vigorous to raise it up again from the brink of ruin. A 
revolution broke out under his reign, and he was reduced 
to the island of Sardinia as his only dominion. 

The battle of Marengo decided the fate of Piedmont. 
Bonaparte established there a sort of provisional govern- 

Whal is said of the connexion of this island with Spain ? — 
When and by whom was it taken from her? — What disposal 
did England make of it? — What h.-ippened to it eleven years 
after ? — To whom was it consigned in 17-20 ? — Through what 
political changes has it since passed ? — By what had the reign 
of Victor-Amosdeus been signalized ? — What is said of Charles 
Immanuel ? — Of the revolution under bis reign ?— Of the con- 
sequences of the battle of Marengo? 



260 . FIFTH FART. 

raent; and when the family of Savoy had lost their only- 
protector by the death of the emperor of Russia, Paul I, 
a decree was passed which united to France their pos- 
sessions in Italy. 

As to the island of Sardinia, it remained peaceable and 
forgotten under the authority of Victor Em?nanucl, brother 
and successor of Charles Emmanuel. The king of Sar- 
dinia was re-constituted after the great events of 1814. 
Besides his island, Victor Emmanuel had as his portion, 
after the congress of Vienna, the whole of Piedmont and 
the territory of Genoa. 

A revolution which broke out in 1821, at the head of 
which was found the constitutional minister Santa Rosa, 
constrained Victor Emmanuel to abdicate in favor of his 
brother, Charles Felix. C/yirles Albert (1847) is at pre- 
sent on the throne, which he reached April 27*^- 183 1. 

SAXONS. 

Saxony is an ancient principality of the German empire. 
It is divided into the duchy or electoral circle, and into 
upger and lower Saxony. 

About the V century the Saxons, probably driven b^k 
themselves by the irruption of the Hujis and the Alani, 
precipitated themselves, together with the Angles, upon 
the British islands, subdued their inhabitants, and estab- 
lished there seven small States known under the name of 
the heptarvliy. 

It was about the same epoch that a portion of this cim- 
bric horde fixed itself in the country of Lower Germany, 
which has preserved the name of Saxony. The Saxons 

What disposal was made of Sardinia at the death of Paul I? 
— What is said of Victor Immanuel ? — Of the revolution in 
1821 ? — Who is at present on the Sardinian throne? — Of what 
empire is Saxony a part? — How is it divided? — What country 
did they get possession of about the V century ? — When did a 
part of ihcm settle in Lower Germany ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 261 

had already made themselves formidable to the Franks, 
when Charlemagne, after a bloody war of thirty years, 
constrained them to pay him a tribute and to embrace the 
faith of the gospel. 

From the commencement of the organization of the 
German Empii-e, the Saxons, whose teriitory extended 
from the Elbe to the lower Rhine, were governed by 
dukes, to whom the king delegated temporarily the 
charge of ruling, in his name, and who, by slow degrees, 
succeeded in rendering their office hereditary. The first 
who, according to the genealogists, transmitted to his de- 
scendants the ducal uulhority, was Ludolf, who issued 
from the line of IVitikind. 

This house of Saxony raised itself to the throne of Ger- 
many in the person o^ Henry the Fowler. 

Otho I, having invested Herman Bellinge?i, one of his 
ministers, with the title of the duke of Saxony, the duchy 
remained during a century and a half in the family of the 
latter, and afterward passed to the house of Bavaria by 
the marriage of the daughter of Lothaire with Henry the 
Gitelf. 

In the XII century (1176), Frederic Barbarossa divest- 
ed of the Saxon sovereignty Henry the Lion, under the 
pretence that in the struggle against the pope Alexander 
III, he had poorly seconded the Lombards and the duchy 
of Saxony; hat Po?nerania and Westj^halia, erected into 
particular duchies, were given to Albert the Bear, of the 
house of Ascania or Bellensiadt. 

Bernhard, count of Ascania, son of that Albert, and 
whom the genealogists make to descend from Witikind, 
was the first elector of Saxony. 

How did Chili "fjna^ne deal with them? — What is said of 
the Saxon dTiko(h;tn ?— Of Liidolf?— Of Henry the Fowler ?— 
Of Hernia n Bellineen ?— Ilowdid Saxony pass to the house of 
Bavaria ?~What is said of Frederic Barbarossa and Henry 
(lie Lion ? — To whom were Fomerania and Westphalia then 
given ? — Who was the first elector of Sax.ony ? 



262 FIFTH paht. 

Albert III having died without posterity, in 1118, the 
house of Ascania divided itself between the two bouses 
of Saxc-An/uiJt and Saxe-Lauenlourg. 

The emperor Sigismund, after the death of Albert III, 
transferred the electorate to Frederic the Warlike, land- 
grave of Thvringia and margrave of MisTiia, the head of 
the branch of Saxe- Wittcmhcrg. 

Frederic Augustus, elector of Saxony and descendant 
of Frederic I, after having acceded, in 1806, to the act 
of organization of the Rhenish Confederacy, received 
from Napoleon the title of king, which was preserved to 
him, in 1814, by the congress of Vienna. A revolution 
broke out in his kingdom, and Anthony, the brother of 
Frederic Augustus, who died in 1827, found himself 
obliged, in order to calm his subjects, to appoint as co- 
regent of the kingdom, his nephew Frederic, who had at- 
tracted to himself the confidence of the Saxons. Frederic 
Augustus II, now upon the throne of Saxony, reached it 
June G'^ 18'JG. 

GREEKS. 

From tlic decay of Rome, the seat of government hav- 
ing been transferred to Byzantium, a Greek and Christian 
empire was seen to spring up there which gave a new 
existence to Greece. The Latins and the Turks succes- 
sively weakened it. Frank, Yenitian and Genoese seig- 
neurs ruled over Greece proj^er, the Morea and the Ar- 
chipelago. The ^'enitians preserved their commercial 
possessions until the XVIII century. From that epoch 

How was the house of Ascania divided at the death of Al- 
bert III? — To whom did Sigismund transfer the Electorate ? — 
What is said of Frederic Augustus? — What were tlie conse- 
"fjTiences of the last revolution? — Who is at present en t!io 
tliroijo of Sjixony? — What event resuscitated (jircece? — By 
whom was die Christian Kingdom of Byzantium weakened? 
—Who lieul sway in tlie Grecian territories during the middle 
a-ie? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES, 2G3 

ospocially, the Greek nation fell under the catsfemptuous 
yoke of the Turks : it was brutalized, and lost in a great 
measure its civilization. 

Meanwhile the Maniotcs in Morea, the SuUots in E pi- 
rns and the Spakiotes in Candia, defended their liberty, 
w'aile their brethren bowed beneath the despotism of 
hai-barians, and overwhelmed with imposts by the par has, 
could only groan. Some partial insurrections were ex- 
tinguished ; but ere long, in 181 1, some young Greeks, 
who liad travelled in Europe, formed a patriotic associa- 
tion. New Tijrtai caused the songs of independence to 
be heard, such as Rhigas in the XVIII. century. The 
insurrection broke out under the prince Yj^silanfL The 
plains and the mountains were at once the theatre of the 
revolt. Men's minds were initated still more by the de- 
capitation of the venerable Gregory, patriarch of Constan- 
tinople. A Avar of extermination ravaged Greece. JMii- 
soloitghf, At/icn'i, and all the places of strength beheld the 
courage of the Hellenes. A constitution was drawn up, 
i:i 1S22, in a national assembly held at Epidaunts, The; 
seat of governmeiit was established at Cormth. Meun- 
w'hile the Turks continued the massacres at Scio, 'Cvo\\\ 
whence they took 40,000 christians, whom they led into 
slavery. It was then that Can oris blew up the vessel of 
the capitan-pacha. 

The christian powers lemaincd at first unmoved ; only a 
few individuals embraced the cause of the Greeks. Tho 
United States sympatized with Greece and sent her libe- 
lal contributions in money and munitions of war. Among 

What bocanie of ihetn under the Turkish yoke? — Wriat 
Greek tribes maintained their libe.-ty at this lime ? — What 
took place in Greece iu 1814? — Under Yp.-ilanti ? — i»y what 
were men's minds still furt/jcr irritated? — Wh.it phires wit- 
nes.-^ed the courage of she new Greeks? — What, was done in 
X^ll '\ — What is said of ihe mnssacres of Scio ?— OfCanaris? 
— How did christian powers at. first rea^ard Greek patrJaUsm ? 
— Ifovv was it viewed in this couatrj? 



264 FIFTH PART. 

them we notice Lord Byron, who ended his hfe in Greece ; 
Colonel Fahr'icr and Lord Cochran. 

On the side of the Greeks, hi3tory names Botzaris, 
Odysseus, Colocotroni, Mavrocordatos B.ud Mianlis. Fi- 
nally, on the 6^*^ of July, 1827, it was resolved by England, 
France and Russia, together to interpose between the 
Turks and the Greeks, in order to put an end to the 
calamities of war. The united fleets of the three powers 
rendezvoused in the neighborhood of Greece; and, on 
the refusal of the Turks to recognise the armistice, they 
destroyed the Turko-Egyptian fleets, on the 19^^ of Octo- 
ber, in the port of Navarino. The assassination of Capo- 
d'Istria, chief of the Greeks, threw that country into new 
dissensions, which Europe was called upon to terminate 
for her own honor and in her political interests. France, 
England and Russia, according to the last negotiations, 
gave the throne of Greece to prince Otho, son of the king 
of Bavaria. Let us hope that, under this new king, who 
came to the throne May 7^^' 1832, the Greeks, delivered 
from the despotism of the Turks, may devote themselves 
in peace to commerce and industry, which are so much 
favored by the soil and climate of their beautiful country. 
Or, if the monarchy which has been in a measure forced 
upon that youthful and too much divided people be in- 
compatible with their genius and temper, let us hope that, 
factious aims and sentiments being abandoned, regenerat- 
ed Greece maybe enabled to re-assume the republican 
forms and institutions under which, in ancient times, she 
attained to such an unprecedented height of greatness 
and glory. 

What heroes among the new Greeks are next mentioned ? — 
What resolution of the European powers in their favor in 1827? 
— What was done by the united fleets of the three powers? — 
What effect was produced by the assassination of Capo 
d'Istria? — On whom did France, England and Russia bestow 
tlie throne of Greece ? — What views, are expressed in conclu- 
sion respecting Greece? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 265 

I>i^coveric9 and Settlements 

IN THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN PORTIONS 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The discovery of America by Christopher Columljus. 
Araericus Vespuccius and others has been ah'eady narrated. 

In 1512 Juan Ponce de Leon, formerly governor of 
Porto Rico, fitted out an expedition for the puipose of 
discovering a wonderful fountain which was supposed by 
the native Indians to possess the property of restoring to 
youth and vigor all who drank of its waters. This foun- 
tain was reported to exist in an island of the Bahama 
group, and while in search of it, De Leon discovered, on 
the 6'^ of April, a country to which he gave the name of 
Florida, perhaps from the profusion of flowers with which 
it was adorned. 

Not long after, a number of gentlemen residing in St. 
Domingo, under the direction of Lucas Vasquez de Ayl- 
lon, while on a voyage to the Bahamas, were driven 
northward; they landed on the coast of Carolina, which 
they called Chicrao. 

In 1526, Pamphilo de Narvaez having obtained from 
the Spanish government the appointment of governor of 
Florida, landed in that countiy, and penetrating into the 
interior, in the hope of discovering some rich country 
which he might conquer, he and his company were lost 
in the immense wilderness, and after many wanderings, 
privations and perils, they finally reached the sea shore, 
probably in the neighborhood of the bay of Appallachee. 
During these and subsequent explorations of De Narvaez 
and his company, the interior of Louisiana and Northern 
Mexico w^as probably first seen by the Europeans. 

Under the same delusive hope of acquiring immense 

What discoveries were made by De Leon?— De Ayllon ? — 
De Narvaez ? 

12 



Zm FIFTH PAIIT. 

wealth by discoveries aiiJ conquests in Florida, Ferdi- 
nand de Soto, in 1539, landed in ihe neighborhood of 
Esplrllu Santo, and after \raiidering about with his coin- 
panlons for a long tlrne, fiaally directed his course north- 
ward, having heard of a wcaltliy country in tlmt direc- 
tion governed by a female, of whom he doubtless hoped 
to malie an easy conquei.t. The Indian quceri and her 
territory he indeed f.nind, but nrl the wealth with whicii 
that territory was said to abound. Directing his course 
still to the north, he pnssed tiirougli a part of Georgia, 
flien turning westward he penetrated into the interior of 
Alabama, and in several excursions discovered the coun- 
try then inhabited by tiie Chickasaw tribe of Indians, the 
east bank of the Mississippi, the southern part of Missouri, 
the valleys of the Wachitta, Red River and the region 
around New Orleans. 

DISCOVEKiES A:<D SETTLEMENTS 

IN THE XOKTHEIl?N AND EASTERN POilTIONS 

OF THE UNITED STATES. 

In 1497, John and Sebastian Cabot, under the impres- 
sion that new discoveries might be made by steering to- 
wards the northwest, set sail from Bristol in England; 
soon after they discovered land which probably was the 
coost of Labrador or Newfoundland TliC year alter, Se- 
bastian Cabot made another voyage in ihe hope of disco- 
vering a north-west passage to India : during this voyage 
lie ran down the coast of the new conthjcnt from Labra- 
dor., perhaps as far as Florida, and discovered Virginia. 

In 1504 the king of Fi-ance despatched a small tlect, 
under the order* of John Verrazani, a Florentine, who 
steering in a westerly direction from the Madeiras, 
readied the American coast prohabJ-/ in some part of the 



What is said oi De SoroT-Of tije Ca'wts?-Of Verrazani ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 267 

Caroliuas ; from thence sailing north along the shore of 
Virginia, Deleware and New Jersey, he landed probably 
in the vicinity of New- York, and perhaps touched at 
Rhode Island. Having explored the coast as far as New- 
foundland, he gave to the entire country, of which he 
supposed himself to have been the first discoverer, the 
name of New France? 

During the years 1534, 1535 and 1536, the gulf and river 
of St. Lawrence were explored by James Cartier, a French 
mariner of note. Under his auspices and those of Rober- 
val, his countryman, an attempt was made without success 
to establish a colony in the neighborhood of Quebec. 

Not much more successful were the attempts made by 
the celebrated Coligni, admiral of France, between the 
years 15G2 and 1565, to create a refuge for French protes- 
tants by establishing colonies in North America. In the 
course of these attempts the river St. Johns in Florida 
was discovered, and two establishments commenced on 
that river and near the southern boundary of Carolina. 
The jealousy of the Spaniards, however, led to an inva- 
sion of these sottlements, particularly the former, which 
soon fell into their hands ; thus originated tlie Spanish 
establishment of St. Augustine. 

In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh, not discouraged by the 
failure of a similar enterprise the year previous under the 
direction of his relative, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, dispatch- 
ed for the coast of America two vessels, which visited 
several of the islands in Pamlico and Albemarle sound.s, 
and returning, gave such a glowing description of the 
country that the English queen, as a memorial that they 
had been discovered during her maiden-reign, gave them 
the name of Virginia. Stimulated by these favorable 
accounts of the regions over which he was lord-proprietor 
by virtue of his patent, Raleigh renewed his exertions to 

What is said of Cartier?— Of Raleigh ? 



268 FIFTH PART. 

fomi a settlement there. This was the origin of Roanoke, 
a colony whicli, after having encountered several reverses, 
was finally abandoned. 

Equally abortive was the attempt made in 1598, by the 
Marquis de la Roche, a French nobleman, to found a co- 
lony of his countrymen at Sable Island, near the coast of 
Nova Scotia. 

The discoveries made on the coasts of Massachusetts 
and Rhode Island, in 1602, by Bartholomew Gosnold, 
v/ho set sail from Falmouth, in England, led to no imme- 
diate settlement. 

In 1603, under the direction of De Monts, a French 
gentleman of note, the first permanent establishment of 
that nation in America took place. It was situated in the 
Bay of Fundy, and called Port Royal. A second expedi- 
tion, in 1608, under Samuel Champlain, laid the founda- 
tion for the city of Quebec, and the settlements of Upper 
and Lower Canada. 

In 160G, all that portion of North America lying be- 
tween the thirty-fourth and the forty-fifth parallels of lati- 
tude, was divided by James I of England, who claimed 
the sovereignty of it, into two nearly equal portions; tho 
one, called North Virginia, he granted to a company of 
" knights, gentlemen, and merchants," denominated tho 
Plymouth Company ; and the other, called South Vir- 
ginia, to a body similarly composed, which was denomi- 
nated the London Company. Soon after these grants 
the Plymouth Company attempted a settlement at tho 
mouth of the Kennebec, within the present limits of the 
State of Maine, which, after much suflering on the part 
of the emigrants, was abandoned ; while a similar enter- 
jirise, on the part of the London Company, led to the aet- 

What is said of the attempts of de la Roche and Gosnold ? — 
What establislnnent took place under De Monts ? — Under the 
Plymouth and London Companies? — What is said of the colo- 
ni/.aiion of Vir.fiinia? 



IIISTORTCAL SKETCHESS 269 

tleraent of Jamestown— the first successful attempts of 
the English at planting permanent colonies in the New 
World. 

EARLY COLONIAL HISTORY. 

The history of the British Colonies in America, now 
included in the United States, may be divided into that 
of Virginia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, 
Rhode Island, New- York, New Jersey, Maryland, Penn- 
sylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 

Virginia, as a colony, was governed by the London 
Company under three successive charters ; and after the 
dissolution of the Company, by the royal authority itself. 
Under these various forms of organization the civil and 
political franchises of the colonists were gradually en- 
larged, notwithstanding the efforts made by the mother 
country and her officials to prevent their increase. The 
most important events in the history of Virginia during 
this period were the early dissensions among the colonists 
themselves; the famine, in 1610, resulting mainly from 
those dissensions, and the disposition of the colonists 
rather to hunt for gold in the bowels of the earth than 
cultivate its surface; the administration of John Smith, a 
man of uncommon abilities, to whom the infant settle- 
ment was more than once indebted for its preservation, 
and yet who encountered no ordinary amount of enmity 
and opposition from the idle and insubordinate; the ro- 
mantic interposition of Pocahontas, the daughter of Pow- 
hatan, in behalf of Smith, when he was on the point of 
falling a victim to the resentment and jealousy of her 
father, together with her subsequent marriage with John 
Rolfe, and her visit to England, to the climate of which 
she fell a victim on the eve of her return ; the introduc- 
tion of Negro slavery into the colonies, by the arrival of 
a Dutch man-of-vvar in Thames River, with a company 
of Africans, in 1620 ; the Indian conspiracies and massa- 



270 FIl^II TART. 

cres, and the wars between the c-'loiiibts an J the abori- 
gines, to which they gave rise, in 1622 and 1644 ; tlie 
political and ecclesiastical feuds and animosities resulting 
from the changes in England under the royal government 
and the commonwealth ; and finally, the popular revolt 
under Nathaniel Bacon, which may justly be regarded zs 
a prelude to the Revolution. 

Massachusetts, included in the district already described 
as North Virginia, seems to have been first explored by 
the famous Captain John Smith, whose career in South- 
ern Virginia has been already alluded to. He examined 
the sea-coast and penetrated some distance into the inte- 
rior of the country, and, by his representations, the atten- 
tion of the Plymouth Company was again directed to the 
object of planting colonies w-ithin its limits. 

On the 2Ut of November, 1620, a company of English 
Puritans, who had sought a temporary refuge in Holland 
from the oppression endured in theirf* own country, on ac- 
count of their religious sentiments, landed, after a tedious 
voyage, at the spot where Plymouth now stands, aiid 
finding the place eligible for settlement, abandoned their 
original design of entering the mouth of the Hudson, and 
fixed themselves there. 

Thus commenced the famous colony which, amid com- 
plicated privations, perils and reverses, but under the 
fostering care of Providence, advanced step by step, 
sometimes erring doubtless, for to err is human, but after 
all exhibiting an amount of intelligence, moral worth, 
manly fortitude and enterprise, which have told upon the 
history of the North American continent, and exercised 
an influence on the destiny of the world. They were 
followed, in 1624, by the Massachusetts Bay colony, 
which, though abandoned shortly after, was resuscitated 



What is saiJ of Ma=?^achu«eits ? 



IIIKTOr.ICAL SKETCHES. 271 

in 1628, in 1630 rcceivoJ iargo accessions, and at Dor- 
chester, Roxbary, Cambridge, Watertown, and especially 
ut Shawmut, (Boston,) laid the foundation of communities 
wliich were to perform a conspicuous part in the history 
oi' free government, on the new continent. 

The leading events in the history of this colony ar<? 
the sufferings endured by them during the first winter of 
their settlement, from sickness and destitution ; their 
treaties with Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags, 
and Canonicus, chief of the Narragansetts ; the establish- 
ment of representative democracy among them, in 1G31 ; 
the excitement produced by the doctrines of Roger Wil- 
liams, which gave rise to the settlement of Rhode Island ; 
the foundation of Harvard College, in 1636 ; the union of 
the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Plymouth and 
New Haven for the purpose of defence against their in- 
dian or transatlantic foes; the assumption of tlie province 
of Maine under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1G52 ; 
J.hc commotions produced by the introduction of Quaher- 
iwm among them and their persecution of those who 
f^ought to propagate that system ; tlie war with Philip, 
sachem of the Wampanoags, who efTected an extensive 
and most dangerous league among the native tribes 
against the new settlers ; the resistance of royal oppres- 
fiiun, from 1677 to 1689, especially under Sir Edmund 
Andros ; the participation of Massachusetts in the war be- 
tween France and England, from 1689 to 3 697, during 
which she attempted, in connexion with New-York, the 
conquest of Canada ; the mischievous delusion in refer- 
ence to witchcraft, (1G92-3,) v/hich hns given so undesir- 
able a celebrity to Salem and its vicinity ; the murderous 
warfare witli the savages on the frontier, excited by the 
French during the M'ar between France and England in 



What is £'Si\d of New Hanipshire? 



272 FIFTH PART. 

the Reign of Queen Anne ; the capture of Port Royal 
from the former, during the same struggle, together with 
the siege and conquest of Louisburg, another French 
fortress, in 1745. 

The colonial history of New Hampshire is distinguish- 
ed mainly by the disputes of the colonists with Robert 
Mason, his heirs or assigns, who attempted to act the 
part of lords proprietors over that colony, in consequence 
of an early grant which the inhabitants were not disposed 
to regard. New Hampshire was withdrawn from the 
jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1741. 

Connecticut was colonized in 1631, by the settlement 
in the valley of her beautiful river of a number of persons 
from the Plymouth colony under their governor. Win- 
slow. This enterprise was opposed by the Dutch, from 
New-York, or, as it was then called, New Amsterdam, 
who claimed the valley of the Connecticut as within their 
limits. During 1G36-7, the Connecticut colony was dis- 
turbed by the war with the Pequods and their allies, who, 
however, were finally subdued and nearly annihilated. 
During this conflict the coast from Say brook to Fairfield 
became better known to the colonists, and the settle- 
ment in the vicinity of New Haven was the consequence. 
War with the aborigines, resistance of the oppression of 
royal governors, participation in the conflicts of the 
mother-country with other Europeon powers, these are 
events which do not distinguish the history of Connecti- 
cut from that of her sister colonies. 

Rhode Island was colonized, as has been already re- 
marked, in 1636, under the auspices of Roger Williams, 
a great and good man the apostle of political and espe- 
cially of religious liberty; or, at least, their most consistent 
defender, who furnished in his little commonwealth the 



What is said of Connecticut? — Of Rhode Island? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 273 

true model of republican government, and in his magnani- 
mous forgiveness of his opposers, whom he twice saved 
from the machinations of the savages, an example of 
christian heroism. 

The colony of New-York, or New Netherlands, orgin- 
ated in the attempt of the Dutch East India Company 
to maintain a traffic with the natives of the country which 
Hudson had explored around the mouth of the river 
which bears his name. In 1613, Argall returning from 
his expedition against Port Royal, found a few of the 
Dutch established on Manhattan Island. """But the proper 
colonization of the country cannot be said to have begun 
before 1623, when a considerable company of settlers, 
under the command of Cornelius May, were sent out by 
the Dutch West India Company, to whom the East India 
Company had transferred their rights over the newly' dis- 
covered territory. The colonists were disturbed from 
time to time by controversies with their eastern neighbors 
about territorial limits and jurisdiction until 1664, when 
they fell into the power of the British, and became a part 
of the English possessions in America. The subsequent 
liistory of this colony, down to the period of the French 
and Indian war, contains few events of importance. 
The usual conflicts between the friends of popular liber- 
ty and the myrmidons of arbitrary rule was seen here as 
elsewhere. In this conflict Andros, afterward famous as 
the petty despot of New England, is distinguished. It 
has been already remarked that this coiony was associated 
with the colonies farther east, in the invasion of Canada, 
with but little success. 

In 1741 an imaginary conspiracy of the negroes to 
murder the whites produced a terrible commotion in 
New-York, and gave rise to absurdities and cruelties 



What is said of New- York ? 
12* 



iJ74 FITTH PART. 

which fell but little short of the atrocities connected with 
the belief in demoniac possessions in New England. 

The colony of New Jersey was included within the 
bounds of the Dutch settlement of New Netherlands, 
until its conquest by the English, in 1C64. 

Maryland was colonized in 1631 by William Clay- 
borne, a man of enterprise, sent out by the London Com- 
pany. Though settled under Roman Catholic auspices, 
this was the first of the colonies in which religious tolera- 
tion was established by law. The commotions produced 
by the resistan'cc of Clayborne to the claims and authority 
of Lord Baltimore, chiefly distinguish the history of tliis 
colony, until the period when religious toleration was 
abolished, and the Church of England established as the 
religion of the state, under Sir Lionel Copley. 

Pennsylvania was colonised by the Swedes, as early as 
1(313, but did not become conspicuous until IGSl, when 
William Penn, a member of the Society of Friends, ob- 
tained a grant of it from Charles II. 

This colony is distinguished for its equitable treatment 
of the aborigines, and the consequent peace which it en- 
joyed, as well as for the magnanimity with which its 
worthy founder and proprietor acceded from time to lime 
to the wishes of those who had settled within its bounds. 

The colonization of the Carolinas, (1663-7,) and of 
Georgia, (1732,) and their subsequent history, difier in no 
important particulars from those of the other colonic?. 

From 1751 to 1763, the British colonies in America 
were involved in a war differing, in one important parti- 
cular, from any other in which they had as yet partici- 
pated. Heretofore those colonies, so far as they hnd been 
in collision v.'ith any Euroj^ean power, were drawn into 



Wlint 19 said of New Jersey ?— Of Maryland ?— Of Pennsyl- 
vania ? — The Cardinal and Georgia ? 



IlISTOUICAL SKETCHES. 275 

it from sympalhy wiih the mother country, rather thau 
from any direct interest in the final issue, which, for the 
most part, regarvled only some political question of the 
old world. Tb-c " French war," on the contrary, was ;i 
struggle carried on by England and France for the ex- 
press purpose of determining which should be the domi- 
T^nnt power in North America— a country the importance 
of which was just beginning to unfold itself to the minds 
cif ilie potentates of Europe. This struggle was of tlio 
highest importance to the colofiies themselves, as not only 
decidinn' who were to bo their future masters, but as tend- 
ing to identify and blend them together in the feeling of 
a common nationnlity. Whatever attempts had been 
previously made to produce a union among the colonies, 
had been, in a great measure, abortive, owing to sec- 
tional jealousies, or supposed incompatibility of interest?. 
But, as the French war was an attempt on the part of 
France to subdue all the Biiiish colonics in America, so 
all were naturally united in resisting it. The extensive 
combination, also, which took place at this crisis amongst 
the native tribes against the English colonies, under 
French instigation, rendered a concerted plan of defence 
Gtill further necessary en the part of those colonies. In 
a word, it may be said that the competition of Franco 
and England for the sole dominion of North America, at 
this time, was the occasion of calling ilito existence sen- 
timents and developing resources among the colonists 
which, at no remote period, were destined to release- 
tliorn from the rule of any European power w^hatever. 

The prominent events of thi-5 war are, in 1755, the ex- 
peditions of Monckton against the French settlements in 
Ibc bay of Fundy ; of Bradaock against Foitdu Qucsne, 



What were ihe cau9e<3 whicli led to ihc French War ?— 
What were its leading events ? 



276 FIFTH PART. 

in which the British general and many of his troops were 
killed, while Washington, the destined hero of American 
Independence, distinguished himself; that of Shirley 
against Niagara, and of Sir William Johnson against 
Crown Point, in 1756; the loss of Oswego by the Eng- 
lish, in 1757 ; the capture of Fort William Henry, by the 
French, under Montcalm, together with the shameful 
massacre of the garrison by their Indian allies; in 1758, 
the reduction of Louisburgh, which had reverted to the 
French by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; the defeat of 
the British general Abercrombie, in the expedition against 
Ticonderoga; the capture of Forts Frontenac and du 
Quesne, by the colonists; and from 1759 to 1763, the 
abandonment of Ticonderoga and Crown Point by the 
French ; the capture of Niagara, by Sir William Johnson, 
and the memorable conquest of Quebec, by General 
Wolfe, which virtually put an end to the war, though 
England and France each suffered on that occasion the 
loss of a most able and heroic general. 

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 

Causes of the War. 

The destruction of French dominion in North America 
might seem to have laid the foundation for permanent 
peace among the British colonies. The event, however, 
proved the contrary. Great Britain insisted that a large 
.part of the debt which she had incurred during the pBO- 
secution of the French and Indian War, should be de- 
frayed by the colonists, who objected on the two-fold 
ground, first, that they had suffered and spent tlieir full 
share in the war already; and second, that the liability to 
taxation implied the right of an equal representation, 
which they had never enjoyed. \n fact, republican prin- 

What causes led to the Revolution ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 277 

ciples, which had all along been rooted in the minds oF 
the colonists, and which recent events had only strength- 
ened, on the one hand, and, on the other the determina- 
tion on the part of the mother country to hold her Ameri- 
can colonies in a state of dependence, and make them a 
source of profit, were palpably inducing a crisis in the 
history of this country. The crisis was hastened by 
ieveral obnoxious acts of the British Parliament, restrict- 
ing American commerce; such as the navigation act, de- 
claring that no merchandise of the English plantalior^j 
should be imported into England in any other than Eng- 
lish vessels; the duty on sugar and molasses imported 
into the colonies ; the prohibition of exporting from the 
colonies, or introducing from one colony into another va- 
rious manufactured articles ; the act ordaining that instru- 
ments of writing, such as deeds, bonds, &c. should be 
executed on stamped paper, for which a duty should b-j 
paid to the crown ; and, above all, the odious reservation 
in the repeal bill of Lord North, (1770,) by which the 
duty on tea was continued, after a large party in Great 
Britain had become convinced of the inexpediency and 
injustice, under the existing circumstances, of taxing liic 
colonies at all. 

Tlie disturbance produced by the attempts to introduce 
the offensive article into Philadelphia and Boston induced 
the British government to send over a large armed force, 
in order to overawe the colonists ; and the heart-burnings, 
riots, and, finally, bloodshed, resulting from the collision 
of the citizens with this offensive soldiery, were the im- 
mediate causes of that appeal to arms which Britain re- 
garded as a rebellion, but every American regards witii 
reverence and joy as the War of Independence. 

The leadinf>- events of this war were, in 1775, the but- 



What were the leading events of the war in 1775? 



278 FIFTH lAIiT. 

Ilc3 of Lexington, Concord, and BrcoJ's, or Bunker's Hill ; 
the successful expedition of Ethan Allen and Benedict 
Arnold against Ticonderoga and Crown Point ; the meet- 
ing of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, by which 
war was declared and George Washington appointed lo 
the command of the American armies; the invasion of 
Canada by the Continental forces, and the fall of Mont- 
gomery before Quebec. In 177G, the evacuation of Bos- 
ton by the British ; the frustration of their attempt on 
Charlestown, in South Carolina, under General Clinton ; 
tlic Declaration of Independence, by the American Con- 
gress ; the occupation of New- York, by the Brititb, under 
Howe and Clinton; the retreat of the Continental army 
through New Jersey ; the masterly manoeuvre of crossing 
the Delaware, by Washington, and the consequent defeat 
arid surrender of the enemy's forces, at Trenton, in 1777 ; 
the encounter at Princeton, in which the success of the 
Americans was purchased at the expense of losing the 
gallant General Mercer ; the various, though partial suc- 
cesses of General Washington in the upper part of Nev/ 
Jersey, by which the American arms regained the credit 
lost by the disastrous retreat through that slate the year 
before ; the successful mission of Benjamin Franklin to 
France, and the enlistment of Lafayette and other noble 
and gallant Frenchmen in the American cause ; the suc- 
cess of the British in the battles of tlie Brandywine and 
Gcrmantown, and their consequent occupation of Phila- 
delphia ; the defeat of the American troops under Gene- 
ral Schuyler, and the surrender of the army, under 
Burgoyne, at Stillwater. In 1778, the acknowledgment 
of American Independence by the court of France ; the 
evacuation of Philadelphia by General Clinton, his par- 
tial defeat at Monmouth ; the Indian massacre of Wyo- 

Whot were ih« loading events of the war in 177G ? — 1777 ? — 
1778? 



mSTOUICAL SKETCHES. ^70 

mifig, and the occupation of Savannah by General Howe ; 
In 1779, the subjugation of Georgia, under General Pro- 
vost ; the recapture of Stony Point, by the Americans ; 
the successes of General Sullivan against the Indians arul 
Tories of the Upper Susquehanna; the brilliant action of 
Paul Jones on the coast of Scotland, by which two Ijrit- 
ish frigates were captured. In 1780, the surrender of 
(Jharlestown to General Clinton ; the tieason of Benedict 
Arnold, and the capture and execution of Major Andre. 
In 1781, mutiny among the American troops, from want 
of pay, provisions, &c. appointment of Robert Morris to 
the superintendence of the treasury; defeat of Tarleton, 
in South Carolina, and unsuccessful pursuit of the victor.3 
by Cornwallis ; able opposition to the British by General 
Greene, at the South; splendid success of the American 
arms under Washington, at Yorktown, where Cornwallis 
surrendered, and the war was virtually terminated. 

On the 3^ of September, 1783, a treaty of peace was 
definitely signed between the commls.-^ioncrs of England 
and those of the United States. 

The federal constitution was adopted in 17S8, and 
George Washington was utianimously elected first Presi- 
dent of the Union. 

In 1812, owing to sundry claims and acts of Great 
Britain, which were deemed by the people of this country 
a violation of the law of nations, and an unjust encroach- 
ment upon h.er naval and commercial interests, Congress 
declared war against Great Britain. As generally hap- 
pens, opinions wore divided in the United States as to the 
expediency of such a v/ar. It was carried on with various 
success, though the American army, and especially the 
navy, won an honorable and lasting fame by their 6ucce>;s- 



What were the leading events of ihe war in 1779 ?— 1780 ?— 
1781 7— What important event in 1783 ?— 1788 ?—What leJ U 
tlic war v\-lth Great Britain in 1812 ? 



2®D FIFTH PART. 

ful encounters with the single sliips and fleets of a nation 
which had long been deemed mistress of the sea. The 
war closed with the defeat of the British, under Packen- 
ham, by General Jackson, at New Orleans. 

Since that time the United States, bathed on the east 
by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific, 
have ra23idly increased in extent as well as population. 
Louisiana, which belonged to the French, and Florida, 
which was occupied by the Spaniards, form, at the pre- 
sent day, a part of the numerous states which com2:)Ose 
the republic. 

Washington has been succeeded in the important office 
of president by John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James 
Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew 
Jackson, Martin Van Buren, William Henry Harrison, 
John Tyler, and James K. Polk, the present incumbent. 

Under the administration of Mr. Polk, a war has 
broken out between the United States and Mexico, oc- 
casioned by the jealousy felt on the part of the latter 
power at the annexation of Texas to our Union, and the 
march of an American army of occupation to the left bank 
of the Rio Grande. It is impossible, at the present time, 
to foresee all the consequences to either country of which 
this struggle may be productive. They can scarcely fail, 
however, to be of the most momentous character in their 
bearing upon the final destiny of these United States, the 
entire continent of America, and tho civilized world. 
We trust that bearing may be propitious to the cause of 
freedom and humanity. 



What is said of the progress of the war? — Tlie success of 
llie American arms? — Who have filled the office of president ? 
— What war under the administration of Mr. Polk ? — -What 
arc its probable consequences ? 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 281 

LIST OF BATTLES FOUGHT DURING THIS WAR. 



Where fought. 


When fought. 


Force engaged. 


Commanders. 


Palo Alto, 


MaysTme 


2000 Am. 


Taylor. 






6300 Mex. 


Arista. 


Resaca de la Palma, 


May 9, 1846 


1700 Am. 


Taylor. 






9000 Mex. 


Arista. 


Matamoros, 


May 19, 1846 


— — 


Taylor. 


Sonoma, 


Jun. 15, 1840 


— — 


— 


St. John's, 


July 17,1840 


— — 


— 


Camargo, 


Aug. 2, 1846 


— — 


— 


Santa Fe, 


Aug. 4, 1846 


— — 


Kearney. 


Monterey, 


Sep. 21, 1840 


6000 Am. 


Taylor. 






lOOOO Mex. 


Ampudia. 


Tampico, 


Nov. 14,1846 


— — 


Conner. 


Saltillo, 


Nov. 16,1846 


— — 


Worth. 


San Pasqucl, 


Dec. 0, 1846 


100 Am. 


Kearney. 






500 Mex. 


— 


Brazito, 


Dec. 23, 1846 


1000 Am. 
4000 Mex. 


Doniphan. 


San Gabriel, 


Jan. 8, 1847 


500 Am. 


Kearney. 






— Mex. 


Flores. 


Los Angelos, 


Jan. 8, 1847 


— — 


Kearney. 






— — 


Flores. 


Mesa, 


Jan. 9, 1847 


— — 


— 


La Canada, 


Jan. 24, 1847 


200 Am. 


Price. 






2000 Mex. 


— 


El Embvido, 


Jan. 29, 1847 




Price. 


Pueblo Taos, 


Feb. 4, 1847 




Price. 


Buena Vista, 


Feb.22-23'47 


4400 Am. 


Taylor. 


' 




21340 Mex. 


San. Anna. 


San Francisco, 


Feb. 24, 1847 


— — 


— 


Sacramento, 


Feb. 28, 1847 


920 Am. 


Doniphan. 






38000 Mex. 


— 


Cerralvo, 


Mar. 7, 1847 


— — 


— 


Vera Cruz, 


Mar. 29, 1847 


10000 Am. 


Scott. 


- 




7000 Mex. 


Morales. 


San Juan d'Ulua, 


Mar. 30, 1847 


— — 


The Navy. 




1 


3500 Mex. 


— 



282 



FIFTH TART. 



Jyist <>J Battles Continued. 



Where fought. | When fought. | Force engaged. | Commar.dcre. 

Mar. 30, 18471 — — ! Hunter. 



AJvarado, 
Tlacotalpam, 



;Mar.31, 18471 — — : Huutor. 
i ! 7000 Mex.; — 

Pucnte Nacional, >.pr. 3, 184/1 8000 Am. i — 
i i 7000 Mex.! — 

Apr.17-18'47! 6000 Am. I Scotl. 
I i 14000 Mex.' Sa. Anna. 

iApr. 19, lS47i — — j Perry. 
!Apr. 20, 1847j aOOO Am. | — 
jl5000 Mex.i — 
Apr. 22, 1847 
May 27, 1847 



Cerro Gordo, 

Tuspan, 

Jalap a, 

Perote, 
Puebla, 



TuV)asc:», 
Contrcras, 
Churabusco, 
Mulina del Key, 
Cliapultepec, 
Mexico Ci:y, 



8000 Am. — 

28000 Mex.j — 

June 22, 1847 — — | Perry. 

2S00 Mex.' — 

Aug. IS, 1847; 10000 Am. | Scott. 

132000 Mex. I Valencia. 

10000 Am. I Scott. 

32000 Mex. Sa. Anna. 

6000 Am. I Worth. 
2500 Mex. — 

470 Am.. I Scott. 
982 Mex. — 

7500 A.m. Scott. 

20000 Mex. Sa. Anna. 



Aug. 18, 1847 
Sop. 8, 1847 
Sep. 11-12-13 
Sep. 14, 1847 



BI^TM FAB¥. 



GENERAL SUMMARY. 

The first epoch of Ancient History (from the XXV to 
the XVII century) presents us with the establishment of 
the four oldest monarchies with which we are acquaint- 
ed, China, Assyria, Egypt and Greece. 

The second epoch (from the XVII to the XIII centu- 
ry) commences at the conquests of Sesostris. The victo- 
ries of that prince were in fact the principal occasion of 
the oldest and most important revolutions in the three 
quarters of the then known world. In Asia they weak- 
ened the monarchy of the Assyrians; in Egypt, they 
clianged the ancient constitution of the State, and pre- 
pared the way remotely for the corruption of manneis 
and the decline of the empire which ensued, by the mul- 
titude of strangers v^diom that conqueror brought back 
with him. Finally they gave the Egyptians a taste for 
emigration. Thus certain Egyptian princes about that 
time conducted colonies into Greece. Inachus founded 
Argos ; Perseus, Mycenae ; Lelex, Lacedaemon ; Cecrops, 
Athens ; andSysiphus, Corinth. Other cities as famous in 
fable as in history were founded about the same epoch. 

The third epoch (trom the XIII to the IX century) 
has for its most prominent events the siege of Ti'oy, a 
gie<>-e which its length, the multitude of kings who were 
present at it, and still more the genius by which it has 
been sung, have rendered one of the most famous events 
in history. 

The fourth epoch (from the IX to the VI century) pre- 
sents the union of the four greatest lawgivers of antiquity : 
Lycurgus, at Lacedeemonia ; Numa, at Rome; Solon, at 
Athens ; and Confucius, in China. We see in this period 
the entire destruction of the Assyrian Empire, and the 



284 SIXTH PART. 

foundation of three other celebrated nionarclsies formed 
from its ruins : first, that of the Mcdes ; secondly, that of 
the Babylonians ; thirdly, that of the Ninevitcs, In Eu- 
rope we witness the origin of Rome, which in the sequel 
fixed the destiny of the eastern hemisphere ; the estab- 
lishment of the principal rej3ublics of Greece ; the aston- 
ishing progress of legislation ; the birth of philosophy and 
the dawn of the fine arts. 

The fifth epoch comprises two centuries (from the VI 
to the IV.) During this period the glory of arms and of 
genius was carried, among the Greeks, to its greatest 
height. At the commencement of it, Cyrus performed 
the dominant part in the world ; his victories changed 
the entire face of the East; his conquests in Asia Minor, 
driving back into Europe the colonists who had issued 
from it, and who possessed a knowledge of the arts, be- 
came the occasion of that splendor to which Greece after- 
ward attained. 

The sixth epoch comprises two centuries (from the IV 
to the II). At that time Rome carried to an eminent 
degree her virtues and talents ; and the most marked good 
fortune, still subordinate to wisdom, directed all her foot- 
steps. 1 he death of Alexander occurred during this 
period (324), an event which produced, through the whole 
of Asia, one of the greatest changes ever witnessed on our 
globe ; then commenced for Greece that process of decay 
from which she never recovered, while the Roman re- 
public was aggrandized by rendering herself mistress of 
the empire of the Macedonian conqueror. 

The seventh epoch comprehends a century (from the 
II to the I). Daring this period civil wars, excited by 
some of the greatest men in the world, such as the Gracchi, 
Sylla, Marius, Caesar and Pompey, agitated the republic, 
and finally led to its ruin. The seditions excited by those 
two ambitious brothers, the Gracchi (neither of whom, 
perhaps, were destitute of patriotism) were the germ of 



GENERAL SUMMARY. 285 

all the rest, the principal cause of all the domestic wars, 
and consequently of the revolutions by which they were 
terminated. 

The eighth epoch comprehends two centuries and a 
half (from the I to the III century after Jesus Christ). 
During the course of it tlie Roman Empire, triumphing 
over the Barbarian?, and elevated to the summit of glory, 
preserved a superiority of dominion over the nations of 
our hemisphere. This period may be considered as com- 
mencing at the battle of Actium, thiity-one years before 
Jesus Christ, because that event strengthened the power 
of Augustus, and furnished solid foundations to the sacred 
and military governments which that prince began to es- 
tablish under the names of pontiif and emperor. 

The ninth epoch includes three centuries (from the III 
to the V). During this interval the Roman Empire, at- 
tacked on all sides, and shaken by the most formidable 
blows, grew feeble, tottered, and ended by falling beneath 
the strokes of a host of nations until then almost unknov/n. 

HISTOilY OF THE MIDDLE AGE. 

Tlie first epoch of that history includes nearly a cen- 
tury and a half In this interval we witness the birth of 
the greater j^art of the empires and monarchies of modern 
times ; the ancient chaos is dispersed, new institutions 
are establisheJ, and Europe at length assumes a delini'.c 
form. It is an epoch of creation and social organiza- 
tion. During its course we encounter six principal na- 
tions ; the Anglo-Saxons, the Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, 
the AUcmanni or- Germans, the Burgundians and tljo 
Franks. 

The second epoch comprises nearly two centuries. It 
presents one of the greatest events in the annals of the 
world. The Arabs, a people still almost savage, but in- 
dependent, who, in the immensity of their arid deserts, 



280 SIXTH PART.. 

had escaped the Roman arms, emerged all at orsco from 
their obscurity by the genius of a single man, and aston- 
ished the \\orld by their courage and conquests. In a 
few years they subdued the half of Asia, the shores of 
Africa and a part of Europe, and their name, but a short 
time before wholly unknown, caused the emperor of the 
East and the monarch of Persia, then tlie two first poten- 
tates of the globe, to tremble upon their thrones. Had 
the followers of JMahomet not become divided among 
lliemselves, it is difficuk to conjecture what would have 
been the present condition of Christendom. 

The tliird epoch comprises a century and a half It 
shows us modern continental Europe, almost at the same 
j)oint which it had reached under the last Roman empe 
rors ; that is to say, nearly united under one man, and tho 
name of tlie Empire lenewed after three hundred and 
twenty-four years (-ITG to 800) by one of the descendants 
of its most formidable enemies. To this revolution sooa 
succeeded the feudal system, which extended its admiiiis- 
trative net-work over the whole of Western Europe, 
while the communes and the cities are also seen arming 
in their own defence. 

Two men, Alfred and Charlemagne, at this epoch di- 
vide our admiration, both equally great in valor and puis- 
sance, both exerting themselves to scatter a few rays of 
light amidst the profound night in which the wholfe world 
was then plunged : and both above their age, striving 
against the prevailing barbarism and leaving beliind" them 
noble monuments of their courage and genius. 

The fourth epoch includes more than a century and a 
half, and is worthy of great attention. After the death of 
Charles the Great, his vast empire, formed of so many re- 
mote countries, of so many different nations whom he had 
united under the same sceptre and the same laws, a mo- 
saic held together by the compressive force of his genius, 



GoNEllAL SUMMARY.. 287 

was rent aaundcr, and of its fragments were formed tlireo 
great empires, France, Italy and Germany. 

The distinctive traits of this iiud the preceding epoch 
were the grossest ignorance, tlie complete triumph of su- 
perstition, tlie increase of the temporal and spiritual pow- 
er of the popes; and the close of this period (X century) 
is marked by the entire destruction of the ancient civi- 
lization. 

The fifth epoch compri.-^^es r.eariy three centuries. TI50 
religious expeditions called the crusades are the events 
which especially characterize this age ; they present a 
picture at once the most interesting and varied, tlmt of 
barbarism advancing unconsciously towards civilization. 

The sixth epoch includes nearly tv.'o centuries. It 
ofiers to our view an event of the Inghest interest, that of 
the revival of all the fine arts, wliich, after having beeii 
for so long a time exiled from the West, made their ap- 
pearance there again under the auspices of the Medici. 
The intellectual movement takes its liighest flight ; poli- 
tics, science, literature, commerce, everything is sensible 
of the new impulse which has been given to th.e human 
nviiKl, and furnishes presentiment of that great social reform 
which took place in the age immediately following. 

MODERX 11 1 STORY. 

The revolution which occurred in Kuro2)e in the XV 
centuT-y, in consequence of the Turkit;h conquests, entirely 
oJianged the aspect of its States, and gave rise to a r,ew 
political order. But this change was not sudden : it had 
been induced by anterior revolutions and institutions, by 
tne invention of the compass, of printing and gunpowder. 
The nations of Europe profited by these discoveries to 
extend their information ; letters, the arts, llie sciences, 
reliffion, orovernments and manners assumed a new aa- 
pect. It is at this memorable period that we should com- 
mence modern history. 



288 SIXTH PART. 

The first epoch comprehends a century and a half: it 
is one of the most brilliant in the annals of time. All 
Europe is at that time seen embellished with the labors 
of the fine arts, all the sciences developed, and several 
sublime discoveries giving to mankind information previ- 
ously unknown, A new world is opened to the eyes of 
navigators by the discoveries of Columbus. 

The second epoch includes a half century. France, at 
that time radiant with the glory of arts and arms, victori- 
ous by land, formidable by sea, enriched by commerce, 
by manufactures, by the talents of her sons, increased by 
a third of her possessions, gave laws to Europe ; she was 
respected throughout the world,. Louis XIV", by the su- 
periority of his reign, is undoubtedly the most striking 
object which presents itself during this period. 

The third epoch comprises nearly a half century. 
Among a multitude of famous events belonging to this 
epoch, we notice the happy revolution which took place 
in Russia; from an obscure state, it has become one of 
the most powerful empires of Europe ; this was the work 
of Peter the Great, who, turning to good account the 
efforts of his predecessors, gave a new existence to his 
country, created armies, fleets, cities, arts, commerce and 
an excellent system of police. 

The fourth epoch lasted for half a century. This in- 
terval is marked, first, by the extinction of the powerful 
family of Austria, in the person of Charles VI (1740). 
This event, followed by the most general and bloody 
wars in Europe, became the principle of a total change 
in the relative power of the European kingdoms and in 
their political system ; secondly, by the elevation of Prus- 
sia to the rank of one of the first continental powers, 
through the military and philosophic genius of the great 
Frederic II ; thirdly, by the enfeeblement of France, 
which bore already in its bosom the germs which were 
destined to produce one of the most violent crises that 



GENE RAJ. SU.MMARr. 289 

Europe had ever experienced ; fuurllily, by tlie colonial 
wars which furnished England the opportunity to ruin 
the navies of France and Spain, and to arrogate to her- 
self a vexatious jurisdiction over neutral States. The 
most important of her colonies, however (the United 
States) escaped from her grasp ; yet she boldly faced her 
enemies on all sides, founded in the East (India) an em- 
pire as vast as that which she had lost in the West, and 
remained mistress of the seas. 

The fifth epoch lasted twenty-six years. It was one of 
the most important in all history. The independence of 
the political system of Europe, which Frederic II seemed 
to have fixed upon the firmest foundations, crumbled to 
pieces, and was recomposed only from its "own fragments. 
The greater part of the European States experienced 
tremendous shocks. The signal for these concussions 
was given by France : royalty was abolished there (1792), 
and the head of Louis XVI fell under the axe of the revo- 
lution. This bloody tragedy moved the whole of Europe ; 
ancient dynasties were changed : a youthful general, full 
of genius, boldness and ambition, bore the French name 
victoriously from the Tagus to the Borysthenes, and seat- 
ed himaelf upon the throne of the Bourbons, from which 
he commanded coixtinental Europe; but he descended 
with as much rapidity as he had risen, and was sent to 
die upon the rock of Saint Helena. 

The sixth epoch has lasted (down to the present year, 
1848,) thirty-three years. This epoch is not less remark- 
able than those which have preceded it ; first, during its 
course a political system has been established in Europe, 
entirely founded upon the principle of legitimacy; se- 
condly, an indissoluble bond embraces all the States of 
Germany ; the sovereign princes and the free cities of 
that country have constituted themselves into a Germanic 
Confederation, with a diet at Frankfort on the Main© ; 
thirdly, revolutions have been seen to break out in Spain, 
^ 13 



290 SIXTH PART. 

Brazil, Mexico and Guatimala, and in Greece; fourthly, 
the war between Russia and Turkey, the usurpation of 
Don Miguel in Portugal, the revolution of Paris, which 
caused the elder branch of the house of Bourbon to de- 
scend from the throne ; the revolution of Brussels, which 
raised all Belgium against Holland ; the revolution of Po- 
land, which in its issue seemed for a second time to efface 
that country, as an independent nation, from the map of 
Europe ; the erection of the new kingdom of Greece, the 
fall of Don Miguel, the regency in Spain of Espartero, 
and his flight into England ; the progress of free principles 
in the latter country, the continued endeavor of the three 
great powers of England, Russia and France to extend, 
their influence and dominion in Asia and Afiica ; the 
opening up of China to the commerce of the world, and 
the rapid growth of our own country in population, terri- 
tory, the arts and sciences ; in a word, all the resources of 
national greatness : these are the events which impart a 
character of the highest interest to the nineteenth century, 
and are destined to make it one of the most important 
eras in the history of the world. 



ALPHABETIC 



TABLE OF THE NATIONS. 



Acba^ans, . 
Alani, . . 
Alleraanni, . 
Americans, 
Angles, . 
Arabs, . . 
Armenians, 
Assyrians, 
Athenians, . 
Avars, . . 
Babylonians, 
Baleares, . 
Belgians, . 
Boeotians, . 
Bithynians, 
l>obemians, 
J^urgundians, 
Britons, 
Brazilians, . 
Bulgarians, 
Caledonians, 
Candia, (History 
Cappadocians, 
Carians, . . . 
Carthaginians, 
Cyprus, (History 
Corinthians, 
Corsicar;?, . . 
Cretes, . . . 
Danes, . . . 
Egyptians, . 
Empire of the East, (His- 
tory of ) . . . . 1 
English, 
Epirotcs, . 
Etolians, . 
Etruscans, , 



P»4'03. 



Of) 



of) 



French, 167 

Franks 162 

Gauls, 158 

Genoese, .... 221 

Gepidas, 164 

Germans, .... 199 

Goths, 163 

Greeks 262 

Haytiens, 243 

Hebrews, .... 104 

Heruli, 163 

Hollanders, ... 247 
Hungarians, .... 206 

Huns 162 

Iberians, or Hispani- 

ans, . . . • 159 

Iri:.h, 196 

Italy, 159 

Jerusalem, (History of) 229 
Lacedaemonians, . . IIG 

Latins 147 

Lombards, .... 181 
Lucchesc, .... 226 

Lydians, 152 

Macedonians, . . . 136 

Medes, 103 

Messenians, . . . 156 
Mexicans, .... 238 
Milanese, .... 228 
Modenese, .... 227 

Moguls 164 

Moors, 187 

Neapolitans, . . . 207 

Ninevites, .... 103 

. Normans, .... 164 

i Norvv-egians, . . . .190 

[ Numidians, . . . 161 



292 



ALPHABETIC LIST OF THE NATIONS. 



Ostrogoths, . 
Popes, (Histoi 
Parmesans, 
Pergamotea, 
Persians, . 
Peruvians, . 
Phcenicians, 
Phocidians, 
Phrygians, 
Placentians, 
Poles, . 
Pontines, . 
Portuguese, 
Prussians, . 
Ravennese, 
Rhodians, . 
Romans, . 
Russians, . 
Sabines, . 



of) 



. 163 

IG5 
. 225 

152 
. 132 

240 
. 107 

154 
. 152 

225 
. 19G 

151 
. 212 

252 
. 227 

232 
. 119 

193 
. 160 



Samnites, . 
Sardinians, 
Saxons, . 
Scotch, 
vSicilians, 
Spaniards, 
Spartans, . 
Swedes, . . 
Swiss, . 
Syracusans, . 
Tarentines, 
Thessalians, . 
Turks, . . 
Tuscans, . . 
United States, 
Vandals, . . 
Venedes, 
Venetians, 
Visigoths, . 



160 
257 
260 
195 
208 
182 
115 
188 
216 
156 
160 
153 
233 
222 
265 
161 
164 
219 
163 



B'BW^^TM TA^T. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
Of the Sovereigns of flarope, 

Divided by dynasties and families, from the invasion of thv 
Barbarons Nations, down to 1847. 

EXERCISES. 

This last labor which our system requires of the pupil 
is one of the most attractive and profitable ; he should 
gradually accustom himself to designate the reigning sov- 
ereign at any given epoch. He may study, for instance, 
first the history of France, next that of England, and, 
before passing to another nation, he should place these 
two States in connexion, and thus in succession for other 
countries. After having exercised him alternately by ro- 
Eearches and by efforts of the memory, let any date what- 
ever be given him, and he will name, with more or less 
promptness and accuracy, according to his degree of pro- 
gress, the kings in England, in France, in Spain, &c. at 
that period. 

MODELS OF QUESTIONS. 

1. in 1095. First Crusade. 

2. in 1282. Sicilian Vespers. 

3. in 1492. Discovery of America. 

SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 

1. France, Philip I. — England, William II. — Spain, hotiso 

of the Visigoths. — Germany, Henry IV, &c.— Pope, 
Urban II, &c. 

2. France, Philip IlL-England, Edward.-Spain, House 



294 



SIXTH PART. 



of the Visigoths. — Germany, Rodolph of Hapsburgh. 
Pope, Martin IV. 
3. France, Charles VIII. — England, Henry Vil. — Spain, 
Ferdinand V and Isabella. — Germany, Frederic III. — 
Portugal, John II. — Pope, Alexander VI. 



Sovereigns of Europe. 



ROMAN EMPERORS BEFORE JESUS CHRIST. 



45. Caesar, perpetual dicta- 
tor (assassinated the 
year following). 



31. Augustus (after the bat- 
tle of Actium). 



AFTER JESUS CHRIST. 



1. Augustus. 
14. Tiberius. 
37. Caligula. 
41. Claudius. 
64. Nero. 

68. Galba. 

69. Otho, Vitellius, 
Vespasian. 

79. Titus. 

81. Domitian, 

96. Nerva. 

98. Tmjan. 
117. Adrian. 
138. Antonius Pius. 
161. Marcus, Aurelius, 

Verus. 
180. Commodus. 



L. 



192. Pertinax, Didius Juli- 
anus. Pescennius Ni- 
ger, Septimius Se verus, 
who remained alone. 

211. Caracalla, Geta, 

238. Gordian II, Papienus, 
Balbinu^!, 

238. Gordian III. 

244. Philip. 

249. Messius Decius, He- 
rennius. 

251. Hostilianus, Treboni- 
anus Galkis. 

253. EmiliiisEmllianus, the 
two Licimi. 

260. Valerian and Gallie- 
nus. 



SOVEREIGNS OF EUllOri-:. 



21^5 



268. Claudius 11. 

270. Domitius Aurelianus. 

276. Claudius Tacitus. 

276. Florianus, Aur. Pro- 
bus. 

282. Aurel, Car us, Cari- 
■nu«, Numerian. 



284. Diocletian Maximiau, 
Hercules. 

305. Gonstantius, CJorus 

Galerius. 

306. Constantine the Great. 
337. Constantine II, Con- 

stantius I, Constans. 
361. Julian. 



ROMAN EMPERORS AFTER JESUS CIIllIST. 



217. Opilius Macrinus and 
Diadumenes, his son. 
217. Heliogabalue. 
222. Alexander Severus. 
235. Maxiniin, Gordian I. 



363. Jovian. 

364. Valentinian 1, Yalen*?. 
375. Gratian. 

375. Valentinian 11. 
379. Theodosius. 



EMPIRE OF THE WEST. 



395. Honorius. 

425. Valentinian III. 

455. Petronius Maximus, 

Avitus. 
457. Majorian. 
461. Libius Sevcrus III. 



467. Anthemius. 

472. Olytrius. 

473. Glycerins. 

474. Julius Nepos. 

475. Romulus Ausrustulufi. 



Note. See the Eastern Empire, page 150. 



Invasion ofi tlic ISs&rbariaii^. 

FOUNDATION OF MODERN STATES. 

F R A «? C E . 

MEROVINGIAN DYNASTY. 



Chiefs of the Franks. 



418. Pharamond. 
428, Clodion. 



448. Merovseus. 
458. Childeric I. 



296 



SIXTH PART. 



KINGS OF FRANCE. 



481. Clovis. 
511. Childebertl. 
558. Clotaire I. 
561. Caribert. 
567. Cliilperic I. 
584. Clotaire II. 
628. Dag(jbert I. 
638. Clovis II. 
656. Clotaire III. 
670. Childeric II. 
673. Thierry I. 



691. Clovis III. 
695. Childebert II. 
711. Dagobert II. 

715. Clotaire IV. 

716. Chilperic II. 
720. Thierry II. 
Interregnum of five years 

under the government 
of Charles Martel. 
742. Childeric III. 



CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 



752. Pepin, the Short. 
763. Charlemagne. 
814. Louis the Debonair. 
840. Charles II, the Bald. 
877. Louis IljtheStammerer 



879. Louis III and Carlo- 
man. 
882. Carloman, alone. 
844. Charles the Gross. 



FAMILY OF ROBERT, THE STRONG. 

888. Eudes. 

FAMILY OF CHARLEMAGNE. 

898. Charles III, the Simple. 

THE FAMILY OF BURGUNDY 

923. Raoul. 



FAMILY OF CHARLEMAGNE. 

936. Louis IV, Outre-raer. \ 986. Louis V. 
954. Lothaire. 



SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 



297 



CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 



CAPETS. 



987. Hugh Capet 

996. Robert. 
1031. Henry I. 
1060. Philip I. 
1108. Louis VI. 
1137. Louis VH. 
1180. Philip n 
1223. Louis VIII 



Augustus. 



1226. Louis IX. 

1270. Philip III, the Bold. 

1285. Philip IV, the Fair. 

1314. Louis X. 

1316. John L 

1316. Philip V. 

1322. Charles IV. 



1323. Philip VL 
1350. John II, the Good. 
13C4. Charles V, the Wise. 
13S0. Charles VI. 



VALOIS. 

1422. Charles VII. 
1461. Louis XI. 
! 1483. Charles VIII. 



VALOIS — ORLEANS. 

1498. Louis XII, the Father of the People. 

VALOIS — ANGOULEME. 

1515. Francis T. 1560. Charles IX. 

1517. Henry II. 1574. Henry HI. 

1559. Francis II. 



1589. Henry IV. 
IGIO. Louis Xm. 
1G43. Louis XIV. 



BOURBONS. 

1 1715. Louis XV. 



1774. Louis XVI. 
1793. Louis XVII. 



THE REPUBLIC. 

1792 to 1804. 



DYNASTY OF NAPOLEON. 

1804. Napoleon, Emperor. 
13* 



298 



SIXTH PART. 



BOURBONS. 

1814. Louis XVIII. I 1824. Charles X. 

ORLEANS DYNASTY. 

1830. Louis Philip I, king of the French. 



England. 

ANGLO-SAXON HOUSE. 



827. Egbert. 
837. Ethelwolf. 
857. Ethel wald. 
860. Ethelbert. 
866. Ethelred I. 
871. Alfred the Great. 
901. Edward the Elder. 
925. Athelstan. 



940. Edmund I. 
946. Edred. 
95r>. Edwy. 
957. Edgar. 

975. Edward the Martyr. 
978. Ethelred II. 
1016. Edmund II. 



DANISH HOUSE. 



1014. Sueno. 
1017. Canute I. 



1036. Harald I. 
1040. Hardi-Canute. 



SAXON KINGS. 



1042. Edward, the Confes- 
sor. 



1065. Harald II. 



NORMAN HOUSE. 



1066. William, the Con- 
queror. 
1087. William II. 



1100. Henry I. 

1135. Stephen of Blois. 



HOUSE OF THE PLANTAGENETS. 



1154. Henry II. 
1189. Richard I. 
1199. John, Lackland. 



1210. Henry III. 
1272. Edward I. 
1307. Edward II. 



SOVEilEIGNS OF EUROPE. 



1327. Edward IIL 
1377. Richard 11. 

LANCASTER^?. 
1399. Henry IV. 
1413. Henry V. 



1422. Henry VI. 
YORKS. 

1461. Edward IV. 
1483. Edward V. 
1483. Richard III, 



HOUSE OF TUDORS. 



1485, Henry VII. 
1509. Henry VIII. 
1547. Edward VI. 



1554. Mary. 
1558. Elizabeth. 



HOUSE OF STUARTS, 



1603. James I. 

1625. Charles I. 

1649. Interregnum. 

1053. Cromwell, protector. 

1658. Richard Cromwell. 

1660. Charles II. 



1685. James IL 
1688. Revolution. 
16S9. William III, of 

Orange-Nassau. 
1702. Ann Stuart. 



HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK-HANOVER. 



1714. George T. 
1727. George II. 
1760. George III. 



1820. George IV 
1830. William IV. 
1837. Victoria I. 



ILow C oisi&trie^. 



STADTHOLDERS. 



1570. William I. 
1584. Maurice. 
1625. Henry, Frederic. 
1647. William II. 
1072. William HI. 
1702. The Stadtholderate 
abolielied. 



1702. Heinsius, grand pen- 
sioner. 

1747. William IV, Stadt- 
holder. 

1751. William V. 

1795. Revolution. 



300 SIXTH PART. 

KINGS. — FAMILY OF NAPOLEON. 

1806. Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland. 

ORANGE-N'ASSAU. 

1815. William (IV) I. 

HOLLAND. 

1830. William I, king of Holland. 

BELGIUM. 

1831. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, king of the Belgians. 
Spain. 

VISIGOTHS. 

The dynasty of the Visigoths reigned from 415 to 714. 

MOORISH DOMINION. 

Particular k^ngs in Castile, Leon and Arragon. 

KINGDOMS OF SPAIN RE-UNITED. 

1474. Ferdinand V, the Catholic, and Isabella. 
1504. Jane the Simple, and Philip the Fair. 
1506. Ferdinand, the Catholic. 

AUSTRIA. 

1665. Charles H. 



1516. Charles I (Fifth). 
1556. Philip II. 
1621. Philip IV. 



1698. Philip in. 



BOURBONS. 



1700. Philip V. 
1724. Louis I. 
1724. Philip V, a^ain. 
1746. Ferdinand VI. 



1759. Charles III. 
1788. Charles IV. 
1808. Ferdinand VII. 



SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE, 



301 



DYNASTY OF NAPOLEON. 

1808. Joseph. 

BOURBONS. 

1814. Ferdinand VII, re-established. 
1823. Isabella II. 



Prussia. 

DUKES. 



1525. Albert. 

1568, Albert Frederic. 

1G18. John Sigisraund. 



1619. George William. 
1640. William Frederic. 
1688. Frederic I. 



KINGS. — HOHENZOLLERN. 



1701. Frederic I. 

1713. Frederic William I. 

1740. Fredericll, the Great. 



1786, Frederic William II. 
1797. Frederic William III. 
1840. Frederic William IV. 



Maples and Sicily. 

NORMAN HOUSE. 

1057. Robert Guiscard II. | 1085. Roger I. 



KINGS. 



1130. Roger It. 
1154. Roger, the Bad. 
1166. William II. 



1189. Tancred. 
1194. William III. 



1189. Henry VI, Emperor 

of Germany. 
1197. Frederic II. 



HOHENSTAUFFEN. 

1250. Conrad IV. 



1258. Manfred. 



302 



SIXTH PAIIT. 



1266. Charles of Anjou. 
1285. Charles II. 
13C9. Robert the Wise. 
1313. Jane I. 



ANGEVINE. 

1382. Charles cle Durae. 
1386. Ladislas. 
1414. Jane 11. 



SICILY (ARRAGON). 



1282. Peter II, king of Ar- 

ragon. 
1285. James. 
1296. Frederic II. 
1336. Peter. 
1342. Louis. 



1355. Frederic III. 
1377. Mary. 
1402. Martin I. 

1409. Martin IT. 

1410. Ferdinand I. 
1416. Alphonso I. 



ARRAGON. 

1442. Alphonso I, king of Arragon. 

SICILY. 

1479. Ferdinand, the Catholic. 

NAPLES. 



1458. Ferdinand I. 
M94. Alphonso II. 



1495. Ferdinand II. 

1496. Frederic III. 



TWO SICILIES (arragon). 

1506, Ferdinand, the Catholic. 

SPANISH AUSTRIA. 

1516. Charles Fifth. 1621. Philip IV. 

1554. Philip II. • 1665. Charles II. 

1598. Philip III. 

bourbons. 
1700. Philip V. 

savoy. 
1714. Victor Amedceus. 



SOVEREIGNS OF EUJIOPE. 



v^o: 



AUSTRIA. 

1714 Charles VI. 

BOURBONS OF SPANISH ANJOU. 

1734. Don Carlos. | 1759. Ferdinand IV. 

NAPOLEON DYNASTY. 

1S06. Joseph Bonaparte. | 1808. Joachim Murat. 

RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS. 

1815. Ferdinand IV. I 1830. Ferdinand II. 

1825. Francis I. I 



PorlMgal. 

BURGUNDY. 
3139. Alphonso I. I 1279. Denys. 

1185. Sancho I. ! 1325. Alphonso IV. 

1211. Alphonso II. 1357. Peter I. 

1223. Sancho 11. 
1248. Alphonso III. 



1367. Ferdinand I. 



1383. John. 
1433. Edward. 
1438. Alphonso V. 
1481. John II. 



HOUSE OF AVIS, 

1495. Emmanuel. 

1521. John III. 

1557. Sebastian. 

1578. Henry the Cardinal. 



SPANISH DOMINION. 



1580. Philip II. 
1598. Philip III. 



1640. John IV. 

1656. Alphonso VI. 

1683. Peter II. 

1706. John V. 

1750. Joseph I. 

1777. Peter II and Mary. 



1621. Philip IV. 



BRAGANZA. 

1784. Mary, alone. 
1816. John VI. 
1826. Donna Maria II. . 
1828. Don Miguel, usurp- 
er. 
1834. Donna Maria. 



304 



SIXTH PART. 



R n § s i St. 

RURICK. 

962. Rurick. 
(This house lasted until the Czars.) 



1533. Ivvan IV. 
15S4. Fcdor I. 
1/598. Godnof. 
1605. Fedor II. 



CZARS. 

1605. Dimitri, the False. 

1606. Schuskoj. 
1610. Wladislas. 



1613. Michael. 
1545. Alexis. 
1676. Fedor III. 



ROMANOF. 



1682. Juan V, Peter I. 
1696. Peter, alone. 



1721. Peter the Great. 
1725. Catherine I. 
1727. Peter II. 



EMPERORS. 

1730. Ann. 

1740. Iwan VI. 

1741. Elizabeth. 



HOLSTEIN-GOTTORPS. 

1762. Peter III and Cath- 1801. Alexander I. 



erine II. 
1706. Paul I. 



1825. Nicholas I. 



(CONSTANTINOPLE, THE CAPITAL.] 



FIRST DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

364. Valens, brother of Valentinian, Emperor of the 
West, at Rome. 

THEODOSIAN RACE. 

379. TheodosiuB the Great. 



SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 



305 



SECOND DIVISION OF THE! ROMAN EMPIRE. 



397. 



08. 



Arcadius, brother of 
Honorius, Emperor of 
the West. 
Theodosius IT. 



450. Pulcheria and Marcian. 



457. Leo I. 

473. Leo U. 

474. Leno. 

491. Anastasius I. 



518. Justin I. 
527. Justinian I, 
565. Justin IL 



JUSTINIAN RACE. 



578. Tiberius II, adopted. 
582. Maurice, adopted. 
602. Phocas. 



HERACLIAN RACE. 



610. Ileraclius. 

641. Constantine III, Her- 

aclius and Constantius 

XL 
668. Constantine IV. 
685. Justinian II. 
695. Leontius. 



698. Absim, Tiberius. 
705. Justinian II, re-estab- 
lished. 
711. Philipicus. 
713. Anastasius II. 
716. Theodosius II. 



717. Leo III. 
741. Constantine V. 
775. Leo IV. 
780. Constantine VI 
Irene. 



ISAURIAN RACE. 

797. Irene, alone. 
802. Nicephorus I. 
811. Stauratius. 
and 811. Michael Curopalatos. 
813. Leo V. 



PHRYGIAN RACE. 



820. Michael the stammer- | 829. Theophilus I. 
er. 842. Michael III. 



MACEDONIAN RACE. 



867. Basil I. 
886. Leo VI. 



911. Alexis and Conston- 
tioe VII. 



30G 



SIXTH PART. 



915, Romanus and his sons, 
Christus, Stephen, and 
Constantine VIII. 

945. ConstaiUine, alone. 

959. Roraanus II. 



963-969. Nicephorus, Pho- 

cas, Zimicees. 
976. Basil 11 and Constat! 
tine IX. 



Ore€k empire 



102H. 


Romanus III, 
Theodora. 


Zoe, 


1081. 


Alexis Comnenus, 
Ann Comnenus. 


1031. 


Michael IV. 




1118. 


John Comnenus, the 


lOil. 


Michael V. 






Fair. 


1012. 


Constantine X. 




1143. 


Manuel Comnenup. 


105G. 


Michael VI. 




1180. 


Alexis II. 


1057. 


I^Iichacl Comnenus. 


1183. 


Andronicus Comne- 


1059. 


Constantino Ducas. 




nus. 


10G7. 


Romanus IV. 




1185. 


Isaac Angelas. 


1071. 


Michael Ducas. 




1185. 


Alexis Angelas. 


1078. 


Nicephorus III. 




1203. 
1204. 


Isaac, again. 
M Ursulas. 




E.at 


in 1 


S Blip 


ire. 



1204. Baldwin, of Flanders. 
1206. Henry, of Flanders. 
1216. Peter, of Courtenay. 



1219. Robert, of Courtenay. 
1228. John de Brieniie, 
Baldwin of Courtenay, 



Mew Greek ^^mpire 



12GI. Michael Pala3ologus. 
1282. Andronicus II. 
1328. Andronicus III. 
1347. John Cantacuzene. 
1353. John Palaeologiig. 



1391. Manuel Paloeologus. 
14-25. John Palaeologus II. 
1448. Constantino Paliro- 
logufi. 



SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 



307 



Tiir 


key. 


S M A N L I E S . 


1451. Mahomet II. 


1018. Osmau II. 


1481. Bajazet II. 


1622. Mustapha, re-estab 


1512. Selim I. 


lished. 


1520. Soliman. 
1566. Selim II. 
1574. Amurath III. 
1505. Mahomet HI. 
1G03. Achmet I. 


1623. Amurath IV. 
1040. Ibrahim. 
1648. Mahomet IV^ 
1687. Soliman III. 


1695. Mustapha II. 


1691. Achmet 11. 


1703. Achmet III. 


1774. Abdeel Hamid. 


1730. Mahomet V. 


1789. Selim III. 


1754. Osman TIT. 


1808. Mustapha IV. 


1757. Mustapha III. 


1808. Mahmoud II. 


1617. Mustapha I. 


1839. Abdhul Medjid. 


Ocrmaaiy. 


CARLOS 


IXGIAX. 


771. Charlemagne. 


879. Louis II. 


814. Louis, the Debonair. 


882. Charles, the Gross. 


843. Louis I, the Germanic. 


887. Arnulph. 


676. Carloman. 


899. Louis III, the Infan 


F R A N < 


D N I A . 


911. C 


onrad I. 


SAi 


:oNY. 


919. Henry I, the Fowler. 


983. Otho in. 


936. Otho the Great. 


1002. Henry II. 


973. Otho II. 




SALIC F 


lANCONIA. 


1024. Conrad II. 


1056. Henry IV. 


1039, Henry III. 


1106. Henry V. 



308 



SIXTH PART. 



SUABIA SUPPLEMBOURG. 

1125. Lothaire II. 

SUABIA HOHENSTAIJFFEN, 



113S. Conrad III. 
1152. Frederic I. 
1190. Henry VI. 
1197. Philip. 
1208. Otho IV. 



121?. Frederic II. 
1250. Conrad IV. 
1254. William of Holland. 
1260. Jntcrresnum, 



1273. Rodolphof Hapsburg. 

1292. Adolpbus of Nassau. 

1298. Albert of Hapsburg. 

1308. Henry VIII of Lux- 
emburg. 

1314. Louis of Bavaria. 

1347. Charles IV, of Lux- 
emburg. 



HAPSBURG. 

1378. VVenceslas, of Lux- 
emburg. 



1400. Robert, count pala- 
tine. 

14-n. Sigismund, of Lux- 
emburg. 



HAPSBURG, AUSTRIAN. 

1438. Albert II. 
1440. Frederic III. 
1493. Maximilian I. 
1519. Charles Fifth. 
1558. Ferdinand I. 
1564. Maximilian II. 
1576. Rodolph 11. 
1612. Matthias. 



1619. Ferdinand IL 
1637. Ferdinand IIL 
1658. Leopold I. 
1705. Joseph L 
1711. Charles VL 
1742. Charles VIII, of Ba- 
varia. 



AUSTRO-LORRAINE. 



1745. Francis I and Maria 

Theresa. 
1765. Joseph II. 



1790. Leopold II 
1792. Francis IL 
1835. Ferdinand II. 



SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 



309 



Sweden 

DENMARK. 



1389. Margaret Waldemar. I 1439. Christopher III. 
1412. Eric. 



1448. Christiern I. 
1481. John. 



OLDENBURG. 

I 1513. Christian II. 

WASA OR VASA. 



1523. Gustavus Vasa. 
1560. Eric XIV. 
1568. John III. 
1592. Sigismund. 

1654. Charles X. 
1660. Charles XL 
1697. Charles XII. 



1604. Charles IX. 

1611. Gustavus II, (Adol- 

phus). 
1632. Christine. 



DEUX-PONTS. 

1718. Ulrica Eleonora. 
1720. Frederic, associated. 
1741. Frederic, alone. 



HOLSTEIN EUTIN. 



1751. Adolphus Frederic. 
1771. Gustavus III. 
1792. Gustavus IV. 



1809. Charles XIII. , 
1818. Charles XIV {I. Ber- 
nadotto). 



1397. Margaret. 
1412. Eric. 



Denmark. 

THE UNION. 

1438. Christoper III. 



HOLSTEIN GLUCKSTADT. 



1448. Christian T. 
1481. John l. 

1513. Christian II, last king 
of the Union. 



1523. Frederic I. 
1534. Christian III. 
1559. Frederic II. 
1588. Christian IV. 



3ia 



f^ IX ill PART, 



lGi8. Frederic 111. 
1670. Cliiistiaii V. 
1G99. Frederic IV. 
1730. Christian VI. 



174G. Frederic V. 
17GG. Christian VU. 
1808. Frederic VI. 
1840. Christian VIII. 



Sardinian States. 



DUKES 



1391. AmoBdaeua VIII, anti- 
pope under the name 
of Felix V. 

1451. Louis. 

1465. Aiiicedoeus IX. 

J472. Philibert. 

MS2. Charles I. 

1489. Charles II. 

1496. Philip I. 



149S. Philip the Fair. 
1504. Charles HI. 
1553. Emmanuel Philibert. 
1580. Charles Emmanuel 

the Great. 
1630. Victor Amaedaeua 11. 

1637. Frederic Hyacinth. 

1638. Charles Emmanuel II. 



KINGS. 



1G75. Victor Amceda?us II. 
1730. CharlesEramanuel III. 
1773. Victor Ameed^us III. 
179G. CharlesEmmanuel IV. 



1802. Victor Emmanuel V. 
1821. Charles Felix. 
1830, Charles de Cariflfnan. 



Poland 

r I A s T . 
842. Piast. 



J A a E L L O N S . 



1384. Ladislas V, or Jagel- 

lon. 
1434. Ladislas VI. 
1445. CasimirlV. 
1492. John d' Albert. 



1501. Alexander. 
1506. Sigismund I. 
1548. Sigismund II. 
1572. Infcrrcsnujn. 



SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 



31! 





ELECTIVE 


ROYALTY. 


1573. 


Henry of Valois. 


1697. Frederic Augustus, of 


1575. 


Stephen of Bathori. 


Saxony. 


1586. 


Interregnum. 


1704. Stanislas Leczinski. 


1587. 


Sigismund III. 


1709. Frederic Augustus, 


1632. 


Ladislas VII. 


re-established. 


1648. 


John Casimir. 


1753. Frederic Augustus, of 


1668. 


Interregnum. 


Saxony. 


1669. 


Michael Coribut. 


1764. Stanislas Poniatowski. 


1674. 


John Sobieski. 


1795. Division of Poland. 


1696. 


Interregnum. 





PRINCIPAL POPES. 



142 to 150. Pius I.* 
422 to 432. Celestine I. 
440 to 46 1 . Leo, the Grand. 
590 to 604. Gregory the 

Great. 
741 to 752. Zachary. 
768 to 772. Stephen III. 
795 to 816. Leo III. 



891 to 896. Formosus. 

996 to 999. Gregory V. 

999 to 1003. Sylvester II. 
1073 to 1085. Gregory VIL 
1088 to 1099. Urban IL 
1261 to 1264. Urban IV. 
1294 to 1303. Boniface VIII. 



POPES AT AVIGNON. 

1305 to 1314. Clement V. | 1341 to 1352. Clement VI. 



POPES AT ROME. 



1378 to 1389 
1492 to 1503. 
1503 to 1521 
1523 to 1534, 
1566 to 1572 
1572 to 1585. 
1585 to 1590 



. Urban VI. 
Alexander VI. 
. Leo X. 

Clement VII. 

Pius V. 
Gregory XIII. 
. Sixtus V. 



1700 to 1721, 
1769 to 1774. 
1775 to 1799 
1800 to 1823 
1823 to 1829 
1829 to 1830 
1831 to 1836. 



Clement XI. 
Clement XIV. 

Pius VL 

Pius VIL 

Leo XIL 
, Pius VIIL 
Gregory XVI. 



Present Pope, Pius IX. 



* In commencing the succession of popes at so early a date, there is no 
design of determining or even entering into theological controversy. By 
jpe in this connection, is meant simply the chief hishof of Rome. 



312 



SEVENTH PART. 



PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



1789. George Washington. 
1797. John Adams. 
1801. Thomas Jefferson. 
1809. James Madison. 
1817. James Monroe. 
1825. John Quincy Adams. 



1829. Andrew Jackson. 

1837. Martin Van Buren. 

1841. William 11. Harrison. 

1841. John Tyler. 

1845. James K. Polk. 



THE END. 



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